Women in the Byzantine Empire

Last updated
Empress Theodora with her retinue. Mosaic of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, VI century Theodora mosaik ravenna.jpg
Empress Theodora with her retinue. Mosaic of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, VI century

The situation of women in the Byzantine Empire is a subject of scientific research that encompasses all available information about women, their environments, their networks, their legal status, etc., in the Byzantine Empire.

Contents

This field of study experiences debates within it on various important questions. For a long time, the attention of historians was attracted only by individual prominent Byzantine women, mainly the Empress, especially the wife of Emperor Justinian I Theodora, who had a significant influence on the events of the first half of the 6th century. Numerous sources (chronicles, legal texts, hagiographic literature) however paint a picture of the Byzantine patriarchal society in which women in general did not have independent significance and upper class women were imprisoned in a gynaeceum.

The scientific study of the legal and economic status of women in the Byzantine Empire began in the second half of the 19th century and is currently intensively ongoing. The subject of study is both women in general and related issues of family and property law. The scarcity of surviving sources leads to diverse assessments of the place of women in Byzantine society. With the development of gender studies in the 1970s, there is a tendency to revise early views, according to which this role was not significant. The historian Ioli Kalavrezou provides a more positive description of the lives of Byzantine women. [1] Several authors today assume that Byzantine women enjoyed significantly more privileges in comparison to women in Western Europe and the Islamic world.

Education

The general view of women's education was that it was sufficient for a girl to learn domestic duties and to study the lives of the Christian saints and memorize psalms, [2] and to learn to read so that she could study Bible scriptures – though literacy among women was sometimes discouraged because it was believed it could encourage vice. [3] However, there were individual Byzantine women, who famed for their educational accomplishments, such as Kassia, Anna Komnene and Dobrodeia of Kiev.

Sexuality

Marriage

Byzantine women were married usually by the age of fourteen, though some women married later, as for instance Thomais of Lesbos who married aged twenty-four. [4] Marriage was regarded as the ideal state for a woman, and only convent life was seen as a legitimate alternative. Within marriage, sexual activity was regarded only as the means of reproduction. The Roman right to actual divorce was gradually erased after the introduction of Christianity and replaced with legal separation and annulation. A woman had the right to appear before court, but her testimony was not regarded as equal to that of a man, and could be contradicted on the basis of her sex if put against that of a man. [2] On the other hand, women were not entirely subordinated to the will of men. According to the Early Byzantine diplomat and political thinker Priscus of Pannion, '[a]mongst the Romans it was not right to betroth a woman to a man against her will'. [5] Theodore of Sykeon in his Life 'depicts a household of strong women, with no male head, who converge to spoil and promote the one young male child in the family. The women have some choice in their lives, they are able to make a living through the proceeds of the inn, and later, Theodore's grandmother chooses the religious life while his mother marries into a prominent family.' [6]

Ascetic ideal of a woman

According to Judith Herrin, sexuality in the Byzantine Empire was saturated with hypocritical double standards, as in any other medieval society. On the one hand, men appreciated female charm and resorted to the services of prostitutes and mistresses, on the other hand, demanded moral purity from their relatives. [7] Moreover, in Byzantium, the Christian church played a huge role, whose ideas about the relationship of the sexes were formed in the period Early Christianity. Christianity has inherited beliefs from Classical antiquity that women are physically and morally weaker than men, more prone to the needs and desires of their bodies, and therefore less able to understand what is good, and if they understand, to adhere to it. [8] Finally with rare exceptions, Byzantine literature was created by men and reflects their views. [9]

Until the 12th century, in the Byzantine Empire there was no erotic literature and erotic art in general, and the subject of expression of feelings was the attitude of ascetic to God, which implied the complete elimination of sexuality. [10] According to the general idea, a woman was responsible for the desire arising to her in a man, [8] and even for a monk, the best way was not to look at women. There was no general consensus on whether disgusting sexual desire is always dangerous. Some Christian authors of the 4th century agreed that the desire was given by God for the purpose of procreation, and a married person can lead a Christian life no less than one who adheres to celibacy. Some believed that a chaste man and woman could live in the same house without risk to their souls, however, the practical experience of ascetics indicated that sexual desire was almost impossible to contain. In this sense, even a mother or sister could become a reminder to the ascetic of all the other women and the rejected worldly life in general. In this regard, for an ascetic woman, it was necessary to abandon an attractive appearance, wear clothes hiding the figure, and abandon her social status. The washing was condemned, as it once again attracted attention to the rejected body. [11]

Prostitution

Dancing Miriam, miniature from Khludov Psalter, mid-9th century Chludov Miriam.jpg
Dancing Miriam, miniature from Khludov Psalter, mid-9th century

The prostitutes were at the bottom of the social ladder and were known by a variety of names – hetairai, "public women", "(women) from the attic" (Ancient Greek : αἱ ἐπὶ τοῦ τέγους). They are more known from hagiographic literature (where they appear under the designation "humiliated" (Ancient Greek : ταπειναί) or "miserable" (Ancient Greek : οἰκτραί)) or in civil or church law attempting to limit this phenomenon. Probably, prostitution has always been prevalent in Byzantium. However, the word Ancient Greek : πορνεία referred not only to communication with prostitutes, but to many other deviations from the recommended sexual behavior. Prostitution flourished in the capital and the largest cities of the empire – Alexandria, Antioch, Berytus and Edessa, later in Thessalonica and ports of Asia Minor.

Engaging in this activity was relatively voluntary when the daughters of actors or artisans were seduced by tales spread by the brothel holders (Ancient Greek : πορνοβοσκοί) about the luxurious life of getters; also prostitutes could become slaves and prisoners. Mistresses of brothels also went to the provinces to find suitable girls, buying them in poor families. However, such transactions were illegal, and the found father of the family was deprived of parental rights and could be sent as a punishment to the mines; for the members of the Church, the punishment was excommunication. But, obviously, these measures were applied without much success, and at least in the 12th century, prostitution was not only voluntary. Attempts to limit prostitution geographically were also futile even in Constantinople – founded even under Constantine the Great Lupanar was empty, and under the emperor Theophilos (829–843) the building was transferred to the hospital. [12] Yet, under Justinian's reign, the empire saw a plethora of reforms directed to females working in prostitution, both to pursue rights and protection from forced work, as well as welfare efforts to encourage repentance and reformation. [13]

Women whose activities involved the trading of their bodies also included mime artists, performers on flute, singers at weddings or banquets, and actresses on stage that were considered by audience members to be sexually available. [13] According to the Byzantines, engaging in secular art is not befitting an honest man, and women of these professions were considered prostitutes of a separate kind. The lower class prostitutes were considered to be maidservants in taverns and xenodochiums, about which, according to the tradition dating from ancient times. [14]

A frequent topos of Byzantine hagiographic literature was the spiritual degeneration of the “harlot," who, repenting, "acquired holiness for herself." So, for example, this happened with a saint of the 5th century Pelagia of Antioch or a saint of the 6th century Mary of Egypt. According to the suggestion of Judith Herrin, the mother of Constantine the Great Saint Helena was a prostitute in the tavern. [15]

Public role

Gender segregation

From the 6th century there was a growing ideal of gender segregation, which dictated that women should wear veils [16] and only be seen in public when attending church, [17] and while the ideal was never fully enforced, it influenced society.The laws of emperor Justinian I made it legal for a man to divorce his wife for attending public premises—such as theatres or public baths—without his permission, [18] and Emperor Leo VI banned women from witnessing business contracts with the argument that it caused them to come into contact with men. [2] In Constantinople, upper class women were increasingly expected to keep to a special women's section (gynaikonitis), [17] and by the 8th century it was described as unacceptable for unmarried daughters to meet unrelated men. [2] While imperial women and their ladies appeared in public alongside men, women and men at the Imperial Court attended royal banquets separately until the rise of the Comnenus dynasty in the 12th century. [17] According to Averil Cameron, '[t]he message of the prevailing ideology' in Byzantium 'was that women should stay at home, be good mothers and confine their activity to acts of pious charity. Yet the reality was somewhat different. For example, women could inherit, the dowry system was a protection for them ... Many non-aristocratic women also found ways of exercising influence outside the home, and at lower levels, as in all agrarian societies, and in pre-industrial towns generally, their labour was essential.' [6] The freedom of movement might have also depended upon the social status and the location; whereas Mary the Younger had to curtail her activities outside the house once she moved into a larger town from a village, the lower-born Thomais of Lesbos moved freely in Constantinople by day and night. [19]

While it is commonly assumed that in Byzantine society modesty and shyness best suited the female nature and temperament, there is no strict consensus throughout the entire Byzantine millennia of what truly 'modest norms' stand for. For example, Byzantine women were considered 'sexually promiscuous' in the eyes of Arabs; Byzantine women, they assumed, who had no husband and choose not to marry, preferred adultery and they were free to do what they pleased. [20]

Economy and professional life

Businesswoman Danielis being carried by her slaves to Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle of Ioannis Skylitzes, mid-13th century. Madrid Biblioteca Nacional The widow Danielis goes to Constantinople to meet with Emperor Basil.jpg
Businesswoman Danielis being carried by her slaves to Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle of Ioannis Skylitzes, mid-13th century. Madrid Biblioteca Nacional

Eastern Roman and later Byzantine women retained the Roman woman's right to inherit, own, and manage their property and sign contracts, [17] rights which were far superior to the rights of married women in Medieval Catholic Western Europe, as these rights included not only unmarried women and widows, but married women as well. [18] A significant reform enabled women to reclaim their dowry and obtain an extent of financial independence. [13] Women's legal right to handle their own money made it possible for rich women to engage in business, however, women who actively had to find a profession to support themselves normally worked as domestics or in domestic fields such as the food or textile industries. [18] Women could work as medical physicians and attendants of women patients and visitors at hospitals and public baths with government support. [3]

As prostitution was rampant in the Byzantine empire due to poverty, reforms were introduced by Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora concerning welfare and exoneration from their previous professions. This included a 'championing' of rights for sex workers rather than the common practice exile, alongside building a convent for repentance for women to escape poverty and prostitution. [13]

After the introduction of Christianity, women could no longer become priestesses, but it became common for women to found and manage nunneries, which functioned as schools for girls as well as asylums, poor houses, hospitals, prisons and retirement homes for women, and many Byzantine women practiced social work as lay sisters and deaconesses. [17]

Political participation

The Byzantine Empire was a monarchy, and as in many other monarchies, the royal system allowed for women to participate in politics as monarchs in their own name or as regents in place of a husband or son. Many royal women are known to have participated in politics during the centuries. Among them were female monarchs like Pulcheria, Irene of Athens and Theodora Porphyrogenita, as well as female regents such as Theodora, Theophano and Eudokia Makrembolitissa. There were also empresses who engaged in the political arena both alongside and autonomous to their husbands, most famously Theodora (wife of Justinian I), known for her cunning in court and pursuit of reform, most especially females in poverty and sex work. [13] The royal system allowed for women to participate in politics because they were royal, but this was reserved for royal women and did not apply to women in general, nor did it signify acceptance for female participation in politics as such. At the time Irene of Athens was a sole Empress, Pope Leo III considered Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of the Roman Empire and proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day of 800. He assumed that a woman could not rule and so the throne of the Roman Empire was actually vacant.

In regard to the historiography of women's political activity in the Byzantine Empire, there are two main points of view. According to one of them, women were isolated from the rest of society in a gynaeceum. In this case, historians refer to the relevant statements of Michael Psellos, Kekaumenos and Michael Attaleiates. Another point of view, more common at the present time, is that the isolation of women in the sources does not reflect the real state of affairs, but the ideal idea of Byzantine men. Since the 12th century, numerous examples of the opposite have been known. Talking about how her mother accompanied Alexios I on campaigns, Anna Komnene, the first female historian of Europe, speaks not only about how she took care of the emperor’s sore legs, but also was his adviser, who helped identify the conspirators. According to the writer, "these were the reasons that overpowered the natural shame of this woman and gave her the courage to appear before the eyes of men". [21] The wife of Emperor John VI, Irene Asanina, ruled the city of Didymoteicho during the absence of her husband during the second civil war (1341–1347). Their daughter Maria ruled the fortress of Ainos a few years later, in place of her husband Nikephoros, who was the Despotate of Epirus. [22]

According to Angeliki Laiou, the role of Byzantine women in the political life of the country was significant in the late period of its history in connection with the consolidation of the aristocracy, whose position became dominant. Within this ruling class, women were important because they possessed significant property and had influence over their children. The importance of family ties in the Komnenos period was noted by the Soviet-American Byzantinist Alexander Kazhdan. [23]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Justinian I</span> Roman emperor from 527 to 565 AD

Justinian I, also known as Justinian the Great, was the Roman emperor from 527 to 565.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodora Porphyrogenita</span> Byzantine empress from 1042 to 1056

Theodora Porphyrogenita was Byzantine Empress from 21 April 1042 to her death on 31 August 1056, and sole ruler from 11 January 1055. She was the last sovereign of the Macedonian dynasty, that ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost 200 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constantine IX Monomachos</span> Byzantine emperor from 1042 to 1055

Constantine IX Monomachos reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita chose him as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian. The couple shared the throne with Zoë's sister Theodora Porphyrogenita. Zoë died in 1050, and Constantine continued his collaboration with Theodora until his own death five years later.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodora (wife of Theophilos)</span> Byzantine empress (c. 815 – c. 867 CE)

Theodora, sometimes called Theodora the Armenian or Theodora the Blessed, was Byzantine empress as the wife of Byzantine emperor Theophilos from 830 to 842 and regent for the couple's young son Michael III, after the death of Theophilos, from 842 to 856. She is sometimes counted as an empress regnant, exercising power in her own right, rather than just a regent. Theodora is most famous for bringing an end to the second Byzantine Iconoclasm (814–843), an act for which she is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Though her reign saw the loss of most of Sicily and failure to retake Crete, Theodora's foreign policy was otherwise highly successful; by 856, the Byzantine Empire had gained the upper hand over both the Bulgarian Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, and the Slavic tribes in the Peloponnese had been forced to pay tribute, all without decreasing the imperial gold reserve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kassia</span> Byzantine-Greek composer and hymnographer (810–865)

Kassia, Cassia or Kassiani was a Byzantine-Greek composer, hymnographer and poet. She holds a unique place in Byzantine music as the only known woman whose music appears in the Byzantine liturgy. Approximately fifty of her hymns are extant, most of which are stichera, though at least 26 have uncertain attribution. The authenticity issues are due to many hymns being anonymous, and others ascribed to different authors in different manuscripts. She was an abbess of a convent in the west of Constantinople.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lazarus Zographos</span> 9th-century Byzantine Christian saint

Lazarus, surnamed Zographos, is a 9th-century Byzantine Christian saint. He is also known as Lazarus the Painter and Lazarus the Iconographer. Born in Armenia on November 17, 810, he lived before and during the second period of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Lazarus was the first saint to be canonized specifically as an iconographer. He was later followed by Saint Catherine of Bologna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodora (wife of Justinian I)</span> Byzantine empress from 527 to 548

Theodora was a Byzantine empress and wife of emperor Justinian I. She was from humble origins and became empress when her husband became emperor in 527. She was one of his chief advisers. Theodora is recognized as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Church, and commemorated on 14 November.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine economy</span>

The Byzantine economy was among the most robust economies in the Mediterranean for many centuries. Constantinople was a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa. Some scholars argue that, up until the arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, the Eastern Roman Empire had the most powerful economy in the world. The Arab conquests, however, would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of decline and stagnation. Constantine V's reforms marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury, and the travelers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital. All this changed with the arrival of the Fourth Crusade, which was an economic catastrophe. The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine Empire</span> Continuation of the Roman Empire (330–1453)

The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred in Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world. The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans". Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium, the adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter the Patrician</span> Byzantine historian

Peter the Patrician was a senior Byzantine official, diplomat, and historian. A well-educated and successful lawyer, he was repeatedly sent as envoy to Ostrogothic Italy in the prelude to the Gothic War of 535–554. Despite his diplomatic skill, he was not able to avert war, and was imprisoned by the Goths in Ravenna for a few years. Upon his release, he was appointed to the post of magister officiorum, head of the imperial secretariat, which he held for an unparalleled 26 years. In this capacity, he was one of the leading ministers of Emperor Justinian I, playing an important role in the Byzantine emperor's religious policies and the relations with Sassanid Persia; most notably he led the negotiations for the peace agreement of 562 that ended the 20-year-long Lazic War. His historical writings survive only in fragments, but provide unique source material on early Byzantine ceremonies and diplomatic issues between Byzantium and the Sassanids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political mutilation in Byzantine culture</span> Criminal punishment used against rivals

Mutilation was a common method of punishment for criminals in the Byzantine Empire, but it also had a role in the empire's political life. By blinding a rival, one would not only restrict his mobility but also make it almost impossible for him to lead an army into battle, then an important part of taking control of the empire. Castration was also used to eliminate potential opponents. In the Byzantine Empire, for a man to be castrated meant that he was no longer a man—half-dead, "life that was half death". Castration also eliminated any chance of heirs being born to threaten either the emperor's or the emperor's children's place at the throne. Other mutilations were the severing of the nose (rhinotomy), or the amputating of limbs.

Zōstē patrikía was a Byzantine court title reserved exclusively for the woman who was the chief attendant and assistant to the empress. A very high title, its holder ranked as the first woman after the Empress herself in the imperial court. The title is attested from the 9th century until the 12th century, but only a handful of its holders are known.

Arabia was the only recorded daughter of Byzantine Emperor Justin II and Empress Sophia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodora of Arta</span> Consort of Epirus and Orthodox saint

Theodora Petraliphaina, canonized as Saint Theodora of Arta, was a consort of Epirus and an Orthodox Christian saint.

John Petraliphas was a Byzantine noble and governor of Thessaly and Macedonia in the late 12th/early 13th century with the rank of sebastokrator.

Constantine Keroularios was a high-ranking Byzantine official in the third quarter of the 11th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)</span> Byzantine co-empress from 842 to c. 856

Thekla, Latinized as Thecla, was a princess of the Amorian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. The eldest child of Byzantine emperor Theophilos and empress Theodora, she was proclaimed augusta in the late 830s. After Theophilos's death in 842 and her mother becoming regent for Thekla's younger brother, Michael III, Thekla was associated with the regime as co-empress alongside Theodora and Michael.

In the Byzantine Empire, cities were centers of economic and cultural life. A significant part of the cities were founded during the period of Greek and Roman antiquity. The largest of them were Constantinople, Alexandria, Thessaloniki and Antioch, with a population of several hundred thousand people. Large provincial centers had a population of up to 50,000. Although the spread of Christianity negatively affected urban institutions, in general, late antique cities continued to develop continuously. Byzantium remained an empire of cities, although the urban space had changed a lot. If the Greco-Roman city was a place of pagan worship and sports events, theatrical performances and chariot races, the residence of officials and judges, then the Byzantine city was primarily a religious center where the bishop's residence was located.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theodora of Thessaloniki</span> 9th century Byzantine nun and saint

Theodora of Thessalonica was a Byzantine nun and saint from Aegina. Her hagiography is the longest ever written about a holy woman in Byzantine history and the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates her feast day on 29 August.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Kalavrezou, Ioli. Byzantine Women and Their World. Harvard University Press.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Guglielmo Cavallo: The Byzantines
  3. 1 2 Paul Stephenson: The Byzantine World
  4. ↑ Halsall 1996, p. 293.
  5. ↑ Priscus of Pannion (1983). The Fragmentary Classicising historians of late Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus. Francis Cairns. p. 299.
  6. 1 2 Averil, Cameron (2006). The Byzantines. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. p. 119.
  7. ↑ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1885.
  8. 1 2 Clark 1998, p. 34.
  9. ↑ Cameron 1997, p. 2.
  10. ↑ Cameron 1997, p. 8.
  11. ↑ Clark 1998, p. 38.
  12. ↑ Grosdidier de Matons 1967, pp. 23–25.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Garland, L (1999). Byzantine Empresses. Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. Taylor & Francis. pp. 11–39.
  14. ↑ Grosdidier de Matons 1967, p. 25.
  15. ↑ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1741.
  16. ↑ Marcus Louis Rautman: Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 Lynda Garland: Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800-1200
  18. 1 2 3 Jonathan Harris: Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium
  19. ↑ Halsall 1996, p. 292.
  20. ↑ El Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium viewed by the Arabs. Harvard Middle Eastern monographs. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. p. 126. ISBN   978-0-932885-30-2.
  21. ↑ Anna Komnene, Alexiad, XII, 3
  22. ↑ Laiou 1981, pp. 249–250.
  23. ↑ Laiou 1981, pp. 251–253.

Bibliography

in English
in German
in French
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.