Zoantharia

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Zoanthids
Parazoanth2.JPG
Parazoanthus axinellae
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Subphylum: Anthozoa
Class: Hexacorallia
Order: Zoantharia
Diversity
See text.

Zoanthids (also known as: zoanthiniarians, zoantharians (proper), colonial anemones, button polyps; scientific names: Zoanthiniaria, [1] Zoanthinaria, [2] Zoantharia, [3] Zoanthidea, [4] Zoanthidia, [5] Zoantharida [6] ) are an order of hexacorals.

Contents

Zoanthids are commonly found in coral reefs, the deep sea and many other marine environments around the world. These animals come in a variety of different colonizing formations and in numerous different colors. They can be found as individual polyps, attached by a fleshy stolon or a mat that can be created from small pieces of sediment, sand and rock. The term "zoanthid" refers to all animals within this order Zoantharia, and should not be confused with " Zoanthus ", which is one genus within Zoantharia.

These are among the most commonly collected corals in reef aquaria, easily propagating and very durable in many water conditions.

Other use of the name Zoantharia

The name Zoantharia (but not the above mentioned variants of this name) is often used as a synonym of Hexacorallia, i. e. in a much broader sense than in this article.

Characteristics

Zoanthids can be distinguished from other colonial anthozoans and soft coral by their characteristic of incorporating sand and other small pieces of material into their tissue to help make their structure (except for the family Zoanthidae). A main characteristic of the order is that their tentacles are all marginal. Most species propagate asexually and the offspring of the original polyp remain connected to each other, by a stolonal network or coenosarc. Some species are solitary. [7]

While the most well-known zoanthids are the zooxanthellate genera found in tropical and sub-tropical waters (primarily Zoanthus and Palythoa ), many other species and genera exist, some still relatively unknown to science. [8] [9] [10] [11] Many zoanthids (in particular the genera Epizoanthus and Parazoanthus) are often found growing on other marine invertebrates.[ citation needed ]

Often in zooxanthellate genera such as Zoanthus and Palythoa there are a large number of different morphs of the same or similar species. Such zooxanthellate genera derive a large portion of their energy requirements from symbiotic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium (zooxanthellae), similar to many corals, anemones, and some other marine invertebrates.[ citation needed ]

Families and genera

The families and genera within the order Zoanthin(i)aria/Zoantharia/Zoanthidea are: [12]

Suborder Macrocnemina

Suborder Brachycnemina

Note: there are some zoanthid genera such as Neozoanthus or Paleaozoanthus for which there are currently only few data available, those zoanthids having never been found again since their original description.[ citation needed ]

Aquaria

This dragon-eye zoanthid is a popular source of color in reef tanks Zoanthus-dragon-eye.jpg
This dragon-eye zoanthid is a popular source of color in reef tanks

Zoanthidae include many species popular in the fishkeeping world, among hobbyists and professionals. They are relatively easy to keep alive and healthy, and will often spread to cover rocks in their bright circles of color. They are known by some as carpet coral, button polyps, and "zoas" or "zoos."[ citation needed ]

Captive propagation

Eagle Eye zooanthid coral, propagated in captivity Eagle Eyes Zooanthids up Close.jpg
Eagle Eye zooanthid coral, propagated in captivity

Zooanthids and Palythoa are propagated in captivity by cutting the polyps apart using a scalpel or scissors then attaching to a surface with cyanoacrylate glue. Gloves and goggles should be worn during this process. Drying the polyps with paper towel then gluing them to a small base with gelled cyanoacrylate glue ensures they do not drift in the aquarium when reintroduced. [20]

Toxicity

Some (but not all) members of this order contain the highly toxic substance palytoxin. Even in small quantities, palytoxin can be incapacitating or potentially fatal. [21] A 2010 study found toxic species for sale in three Washington, D.C. area aquarium stores. [22]

Reports are varied and conflicting on the potential dangers of handling the animal in the aquarist hobby. General opinion and practical experience holds that in order for this toxin to be dangerous to humans, the average aquarist would need to ingest or brush a recent cut over the polyps, and average handling, propagation and aquarium maintenance is unlikely to pose any danger beyond a localized skin reaction. [23]

Other sources state that palytoxin can be absorbed through intact skin, [24] and the danger of acute poisonings is quite real. According to a published case report a hobbyist was poisoned through skin injuries on fingers by a species of Parazoanthus , but recovered after three days. His zoanthid was found to contain 2-3 milligrams of PTX per gram. [25]

Research suggests that in sublethal quantities, palytoxin is a tumor promoter. [26]

Generally speaking, it is considered proper practice to always wear appropriate protective gloves and goggles when handling sea invertebrates. [27]

Diet

Zoanthids feed both by photosynthesis, aided by the zooxanthellae they contain, and by capturing plankton and particulate matter. Although photosynthesis aids in their nutrition, even species that do not actively capture plankton cannot live through photosynthesis alone. [28] Zoanthids are often fed brine shrimp or krill when kept in aquariums.

References

  1. ↑ Scrutton, Colin. (1997). The Palaeozoic corals, I: Origins and relationships. Proceedings of The Yorkshire Geological Society - PROC YORKS GEOL SOC. 51. 177-208
  2. ↑ Soliman, Gamil N. (1996). Invertebrate Zoology: The noncoelomates. Palm Press. p. 155. Retrieved 2025-07-31.
  3. ↑ Sinniger F., Montoya-Burgos J.I., Chevaldonne P., Pawlowski J. (2005) Phylogeny of the order Zoantharia (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) based on the mitochondrial ribosomal genes. Mar. Biol. 147 (5): 1121-1128.
  4. ↑ Hayward, P. J.; Ryland, J. S. (1995-06-29). Handbook of the Marine Fauna of North-West Europe. OUP Oxford. p. 117. ISBN   978-0-19-854055-7 . Retrieved 2025-07-31.
  5. ↑ "Corals of the World". Corals of the World. 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2025-07-31.
  6. ↑ MATIS, Dušan. Zoológia bezchordátov. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského, 1997, p. 119. ISBN 8022311626
  7. ↑ Light. Sol Felty (2007). The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal Invertebrates from Central California to Oregon. University of California Press. p. 177. ISBN   978-0-520-23939-5.
  8. ↑ Reimer J.D., Ono S., Iwama A., Tsukahara J., Takishita K., Maruyama T. (2006) Morphological and molecular revision of Zoanthus (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) from southwestern Japan with description of two new species. Zoological Science 23 (3): 261-275.
  9. ↑ Reimer J.D., Hirano S., Fujiwara Y., Sinniger F., Maruyama T. (2007) Morphological and molecular characterization of Abyssoanthus nankaiensis, a new family, new genus and new species of deep-sea zoanthid (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) from a northwest Pacific methane cold seep. Inv. Syst. 21: 255-262.
  10. ↑ Reimer JD, Nonaka M, Sinniger F., Iwase F. (2008) Morphological and molecular characterization of a new genus and new species of parazoanthid (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) associated with Japanese red coral (Paracorallium japonicum) in southern Japan. Coral Reefs 27 (4):935–949.
  11. ↑ Sinniger F., Häussermann V. (2009) Zoanthids (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) from shallow waters of the southern Chilean fjord region with the description of a new genus and two new species. Org. Div. Evol. 9:23–36
  12. ↑ WoRMS (2018). "Zoanthidea". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2018-08-24.
  13. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Abyssoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2011-12-16.
  14. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Epizoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2016-09-24.
  15. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Hydrozoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2011-12-16.
  16. ↑ Sinniger, F.; Reimer, J. (2013). "Parazoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2016-09-24.
  17. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Neozoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2011-12-16.
  18. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Sphenopidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2016-09-24.
  19. ↑ Reimer, J. (2011). "Zoanthidae". WoRMS. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 2016-09-24.
  20. ↑ "Zoanthid and Palythoa Coral Propagation". Tidal Gardens. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22.
  21. ↑ "Palytoxin". cbwinfo.com. Archived from the original on 17 March 2009. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  22. ↑ Deeds, J.R.; Handy, S.M.; White, K.D.; Reimer, J.D. (2011). "Palytoxin found in palythoa sp. zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) sold in the home aquarium trade". PLoS One . 6 (4) e18235. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...618235D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018235 . PMC   3070722 . PMID   21483745.
  23. ↑ "Some zoanthids produce a deadly toxin". Handling zoanthids. Blue Zoo Aquatics (bluezooaquatics.com). informational resource.
  24. ↑ Nordt, Sean Patrick; Wu, Jerry; Zahller, Stephen; Clark, Richard F.; Cantrell, F. Lee (2009). "Palytoxin poisoning after dermal contact with zoanthid coral". Journal of Emergency Medicine (in press). 40 (4): 397–399. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2009.05.004. PMID   19545971.
  25. ↑ Hoffmann, Katrin; Hermanns-Clausen, Maren; Buhl, Claus; Büchler, Markus W.; Schemmer, Peter; Mebs, Dietrich; Kauferstein, Silke (2008). "A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury". Toxicon . 51 (8): 1535–1537. Bibcode:2008Txcn...51.1535H. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.03.009. PMID   18433818.
  26. ↑ Wattenberg, Elizabeth V. (2007). "Palytoxin: Exploiting a novel skin tumor promoter to explore signal transduction and carcinogenesis". American Journal of Physiology: Cell Physiology. 292 (1): C24 –C32. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00254.2006. PMC   1769420 . PMID   16855216.
  27. ↑ Violand, Nicholas (May 2008). "Palytoxin and you: How and why to avoid a deadly zoanthid toxin". Aquarium science. Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine . p. 122. Retrieved 2025-08-05– via tfhmagazine.com.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  28. ↑ Borneman, Eric H. (2001). Aquarium Corals: Selection, Husbandry, and Natural History. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. p. 464. ISBN   1-890087-47-5.
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