The phonology of Catalan, a Romance language, has a certain degree of dialectal variation. Although there are two standard varieties, one based on Central Eastern dialect and another one based on South-Western or Valencian dialect, this article deals with features of all or most dialects, as well as regional pronunciation differences.
Catalan is characterized by final-obstruent devoicing, lenition, and voicing assimilation; a set of 7 to 8 phonemic vowels, vowel assimilations (including vowel harmony), many phonetic diphthongs, and vowel reduction, whose precise details differ between dialects.
Labial | Dental/ Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n 3 | ɲ 6 | ( ŋ ) | ||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t 1 | k 2 | ||
voiced | b | d 1 | ɡ 2 | |||
Affricate | voiceless | ( t͡s ) 5 | t͡ʃ 7 | |||
voiced | d͡z 5 | d͡ʒ 7 | ||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s 4 | ʃ 7 | ||
voiced | ( v ) | z 4 | ʒ 7 | ( ʁ ) | ||
Approximant | central | j | w | |||
lateral | l 3 | ʎ 6 | ||||
Trill | r 4 | |||||
Tap | ɾ 3 |
Phonetic notes:
Voiced obstruents undergo final-obstruent devoicing so that fred ('cold', m. s.) is pronounced with [t], while fredes ('cold', f. pl.) is pronounced with [ð]. [18]
Voiced stops become lenited to fricatives or approximants in syllable onsets, after continuants: [8] /b/ → [ β ], /d/ → [ ð ], /ɡ/ → [ ɣ ].
In Catalan (not in Valencian), /b/ and /ɡ/ may be geminated in certain environments (e.g. poble[ˈpɔbːɫə] 'village', regla[ˈreɡːɫə] 'rule'). [21] [22]
The phonemic status of affricates is dubious; after other consonants, affricates are in free variation with fricatives, e.g. clenxa[ˈkɫɛnʃə]~[ˈkɫɛɲt͡ʃə] (E) / [ˈklɛɲt͡ʃa] (W) ('hair parting') [23] and may be analyzed as either single phonemes or clusters of a stop and a fricative.
There is dialectal variation in regards to affricate length, with long affricates occurring in both Eastern and Western dialects such as in Majorca and few areas in Southern Valencia. [31] Also, intervocalic affricates are predominantly long, especially those that are voiced or occurring immediately after a stressed syllable (e.g. metge[ˈmed͡ːʒə] (E) / [ˈmed͡ːʒe] (W) 'medic'). [32] In modern Valencian [d͡ʒ] and [d͡ːʒ] have merged into /d͡ʒ/.
/v/ occurs in Balearic, [17] as well as in Alguerese, Standard Valencian and some areas in southern Catalonia. [33] Everywhere else, it has merged with historic /β/ so that [b] and [β] occur in complementary distribution. [34]
While "dark (velarized) l", [ ɫ ], may be a positional allophone of /l/ in most dialects (such as in the syllable coda; e.g. sòl[ˈsɔɫ] 'ground'), [36] /l/ is dark irrespective of position in Eastern dialects like Majorcan [37] and standard Eastern Catalan (e.g. tela[ˈtɛɫə]).
The distribution of the two rhotics /r/ and /ɾ/ closely parallels that of Spanish.
In careful speech, /n/, /m/, and /l/ may be geminated (e.g. innecessari[inːəsəˈsaɾi] (E) / [inːeseˈsaɾi] (W) 'unnecessary'; emmagatzemar[əmːəɣəd͡zəˈma] (E) / [emːaɣad͡zeˈma(ɾ)] (W) 'to store'; il·lusió[ilːuziˈo] 'illusion'). A geminated /ʎː/ may also occur (e.g. ratlla[ˈraʎːə] (E) / [ˈraʎːa] (W) 'line'). [17] Wheeler analyzes intervocalic [r] as the result of gemination of a single rhotic phoneme: [39] serra/ˈsɛɾɾə/→[ˈsɛrə] (E) / /ˈsɛɾɾa/→[ˈsɛra] (W) 'saw, mountains' (this is similar to the common analysis of Spanish and Portuguese rhotics). [40]
Phonetic notes:
Most varieties of Catalan contrast seven stressed vowel phonemes. [50] However, some Balearic dialects have an additional stressed vowel phoneme (/ə/); e.g. sec/ˈsək/ ('dry, I sit'). [51] [20] The stressed schwa of these dialects corresponds to /ɛ/ in Central Catalan and /e/ in Western Catalan varieties (that is, Central and Western Catalan dialects differ in their incidence of /e/ and /ɛ/, with /e/ appearing more frequently in Western Catalan; e.g. Central Catalan sec/ˈsɛk/ vs. Western Catalan sec/ˈsek/ ('dry, I sit'). [50]
Contrasting series of the main Catalan dialects:
LS | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
sac | a | 'bag' |
sec | ə [51] | 'dry'/'I sit' |
séc | e | 'fold' |
sic | i | 'sic' |
soc | ɔ | 'clog' |
sóc | o | 'I am' |
suc | u | 'juice' |
Other contrast | ||
LS | IPA | Gloss |
*set | ɛ | 'seven' |
ə | 'thirst' |
In Eastern Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to three : /a/, /e/, /ɛ/→[ə] (phonetically [ɐ] in Barcelona); /o/, /ɔ/, /u/→[u]; /i/ remains unchanged. However there are some dialectal differences: Alguerese merges /a/, /e/ and /ɛ/ with /a/; and in most areas of Majorca, [o] can appear in unstressed position (that is, /o/ and /ɔ/ are usually reduced to [o]). [54]
In Western Catalan, vowels in unstressed position reduce to five: /e/, /ɛ/→[e]; /o/, /ɔ/→[o]; /a/,/u/,/i/ remain unchanged. [55] However, in some Western dialects reduced vowels tend to merge into different realizations in some cases:
Term | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
parla | ə [lower-roman 1] [lower-roman 2] | 'speech' |
rere | 'back' | |
lliri | i | 'lily' |
ferro | u | 'iron' |
mutu | 'mutual' |
Term | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
parla | ə | 'speech' |
rere | 'back' | |
lliri | i | 'lily' |
ferro | o | 'iron' |
mutu | u | 'mutual' |
There are also a number of phonetic diphthongs and triphthongs, all of which begin and/or end in [ j ] or [ w ]. [59]
Falling diphthongs | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[aj] | aigua | 'water' | [aw] | taula | 'table' |
[əj] (E) [aj] (W) | mainada | 'children' | [əw] (E) [aw] (W) | caurem | 'we will fall' |
[ɛj] | remei | 'remedy' | [ɛw] | peu | 'foot' |
[ej] | rei | 'king' | [ew] | seu | 'his/her' |
[əj] (E) [ej] (W) | Eivissa | 'Ibiza' | [əw] (E) [ew] (W) | eufemisme | 'eufemism' |
[iw] | niu | 'nest' | |||
[ɔj] | noi | 'boy' | [ɔw] | nou | 'new' |
[uj] (E) [oj] (W) | Moisès | 'Moses' | [ow] | pou | 'well' |
[uj] | avui | 'today' | [uw] | duu | 's/he is carrying' |
Rising diphthongs | |||||
IPA | word | gloss | IPA | word | gloss |
[ja] | iaia | 'grandma' | [wa] | guant | 'glove' |
[jə] (E) [ja] (W) | feia | 's/he was doing' | [wə] (E) [wa] (W) | aquarel·la | 'watercolour painting' |
[jɛ] | veiem | 'we see' | [wɛ] | seqüència | 'sequence' |
[je] | seient | 'seat' | [we] | ungüent | 'ointment' |
[jə] (E) [je] (W) | gràcies | 'thank you' | [wə] (E) [we] (W) | qüestió, diuen | 'question', 'they say' |
[wi] | pingüí | 'penguin' | |||
[jɔ] | iode | 'iodine' | [wɔ] | quota | 'payment' |
[ju] (E) [jo] (W) | iogurt | 'yoghurt' | [wo] | seuós | 'greasy' |
[ju] | iugoslau | 'Yugoslav' |
In Standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with [j] or [w]) are only possible in the following contexts: [60]
There are certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in Majorcan so that troncs/ˈtɾoncs/ ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal stop) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as [ˈtɾojns] (and contrasts with the unpluralized [ˈtɾoɲc]). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in [ˈaɲ] ('year') vs. [ˈajns] ('years'). [63]
The dialectal distribution of compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal stop (/k~c/) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals). [64]
Voiced affricates are devoiced after stressed vowels in dialects like Eastern Catalan where there may be a correlation between devoicing and lengthening (gemination) of voiced affricates: metge/ˈmed͡ːʒə/ → [ˈmet͡ːʃə] ('medic'). [14] In Barcelona, voiced stops may be fortified (geminated and devoiced); e.g. poble[ˈpɔpːɫə] 'village'). [17]
Nasal | Lateral | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
word | IPA | gloss | word | IPA | gloss |
ínfim | [ˈiɱfim] | 'lowest' | |||
anterior | [ən̪təɾiˈo] (E) [an̪teɾiˈoɾ] (W) | 'previous' | altes | [ˈaɫ̪təs] (E) [ˈaɫ̪tes] (W) | 'tall' (f. pl.) |
engegar | [əɲʒəˈɣa] (E) [eɲd͡ʒeˈɣa(ɾ)] (W) | 'to start (up)' | àlgid | [ˈaʎʒit] (E) [ˈaʎd͡ʒit] (W) | 'decisive' |
sang | [saŋ] (E) [saŋ(k)] (W) | 'blood' | |||
sagna | [ˈsaŋnə]~[ˈsaɡnə] (E) [ˈsaŋna]~[ˈsaɡna] (W) | 'he bleeds' | |||
cotna | [ˈkonːə] (E) [ˈkonːa] (W) | 'rind' | atles | [ˈaɫːəs]~[ˈadɫəs] (E) [ˈaɫːes]~[ˈadɫes] (W) | 'atlas' |
sotmetent | [sumːəˈten] (E) [somːeˈten(t)] (W) | 'submitting' | ratllar | [rəˈʎːa] (E) [raˈʎ(ː)a(ɾ)] (W) | 'to grate' |
Catalan denti-alveolar stops can fully assimilate to the following consonant, producing gemination; this is particularly evident before nasal and lateral consonants: e.g. cotna ('rind'), motlle/motle ('spring'), and setmana ('week'). Learned words can alternate between featuring and not featuring such assimilation (e.g. atles[ˈadɫəs]~[ˈaɫːəs](E)/[ˈadɫas]~[ˈaɫːas](W) 'atlas', administrar[ədminisˈtɾa]~[əmːinisˈtɾa] (E) / [adminisˈtɾa(ɾ)]~[amːinisˈtɾa(ɾ)] (W) 'to administer'). [65] [66]
Central Valencian features simple elision in many of these cases (e.g cotna[ˈkona], setmana[seˈmana]) though learned words don't exhibit either assimilation or elision: atles[ˈadles] and administrar[adminisˈtɾaɾ]. [67]
Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word (e.g. brúixola[ˈbɾuʃuɫə] (E) / [ˈbɾujʃola] (W) 'compass', càstig[ˈkastik] 'punishment', pallús[pəˈʎus] (E) / [paˈʎus] (W) 'fool').
Compound words and adverbs formed with /ˈment/ may have a syllable with secondary stress (e.g. bonament[ˌbɔnəˈmen] (E) [ˌbɔnaˈmen(t)] (W) 'willingly'; parallamps[ˌpaɾəˈʎams] (E) [ˌpaɾaˈʎamps] (W) 'lightning conductor') but every lexical word has just one syllable with main stress. [68]
Any consonant, as well as [j] and [w] may be an onset. Clusters may consist of a consonant plus a semivowel (C[j], C[w]) or an obstruent plus a liquid. Some speakers may have one of these obstruent-plus-liquid clusters preceding a semivowel, e.g. síndria[ˈsin.dɾjə] ('watermelon'); for other speakers, this is pronounced [ˈsin.dɾi.ə] (i.e. the semivowel must be syllabic in this context). [69]
Word-medial codas are restricted to one consonant + [s] (extra[ˈɛks.tɾə] (E) / [ˈɛks.tɾa] (W)). [70] In the coda position, voice contrasts among obstruents are neutralized. [71] Although there are exceptions (such as futur[fuˈtuɾ] 'future'), syllable-final rhotics are often lost before a word boundary or before the plural morpheme of most words: color[kuˈɫo] (E) / [koˈɫo(ɾ)] (W) ('color') vs. coloraina[kuɫuˈɾajnə] (E) / [koɫoˈɾajna] (W) ('bright color'). [17]
In Central Eastern (and North-Western Catalan), obstruents fail to surface word-finally when preceded by a homorganic consonant (e.g. /nt/→[n̪]). Complex codas simplify only if the loss of the segment doesn't result in the loss of place specification. [72]
Final | gloss | Internal | gloss | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
no cluster | camp | [ˈkam] | 'field' | camperol | [kəmpəˈɾɔɫ] (CE) [kampeˈɾɔɫ] (NW) | 'peasant' |
punt | [ˈpun] | 'point' | punta | [ˈpuntə] (CE) [ˈpunta] (NW) | 'tip' | |
banc | [ˈbaŋ] | 'bank' | banca | [ˈbaŋkə] (CE) [ˈbaŋka] (NW) | 'banking' | |
malalt | [məˈɫaɫ̪] (CE) [maˈlaɫ̪] (NW) | 'ill' | malaltia | [məɫəɫˈti.ə] (CE) [malaɫˈti.a] (NW) | 'illness' | |
hort | [ˈɔr] | 'orchard' | hortalissa | [urtəˈɫisə](CE) [ortaˈlisa] (NW) | 'vegetable' | |
gust | [ˈɡus] | 'taste' | gustar | [ɡusˈta] | 'to taste' | |
cluster | serp | [ˈserp] | 'snake' | serpentí | [sərpənˈti] (CE) [serpenˈti] (NW) | 'snake-like' |
disc | [ˈdisk] | 'disk' | disquet | [disˈkɛt] (CE) [disˈket] (NW) | 'diskette' | |
remolc | [rəˈmɔɫk] (CE) [reˈmɔɫk] (NW) | 'trailer' | remolcar | [rəmuɫˈka] (CE) [remoɫˈka] (NW) | 'to tow' |
When the suffix -erol[əˈɾɔɫ] is added to camp[ˈkam] it makes [kəmpəˈɾɔɫ], indicating that the underlying representation is /ˈkamp/ (with subsequent cluster simplification), however when the copula [ˈes] is added it makes [ˈkamˈes]. The resulting generalization is that this underlying /p/ will only surface in a morphologically complex word. [73] Despite this, word-final codas are not usually simplified in most of Balearic and Valencian (e.g. camp[ˈkamp]). [74]
Word-initial clusters from Graeco-Latin learned words tend to drop the first phoneme: pneumàtic[nəwˈmatik] (E) / [newˈmatik] (W) ('pneumatic'), pseudònim[səwˈðɔnim] (E) / [sewˈðɔnim] (W) ('pseudonym'), pterodàctil[təɾuˈðaktiɫ] (E) / [teɾoˈðaktil] (W) ('pterodactylus'), gnom[ˈnom] ('gnome'). [75]
Word-final obstruents are devoiced; however, they assimilate voicing of the following consonant, e.g. cuc de seda[ˈkuɡ‿dəˈsɛðə] (E) / [ˈkuɡ‿deˈsɛða] (W) ('silkworm'). In regular and fast speech, stops often assimilate the place of articulation of the following consonant producing phonetic gemination: tot bé[ˈtod‿ˈbe]→[ˈtob‿ˈbe] ('all good'). [76]
Word-final fricatives (except /f/) are voiced before a following vowel; e.g. bus enorme[ˈbuz‿əˈnormə] (E) / [ˈbuz‿eˈnorme] (W) ('huge bus'). [77]
The differences in the vocalic systems outlined above are the main criteria used to differentiate between the major dialects: Wheeler distinguishes two major dialect groups, western and eastern dialects; the latter of which only allow [ i ], [ ə ], and [ u ] to appear in unstressed syllables and include Northern Catalan, Central Catalan, Balearic, and Alguerese. Western dialects, which allow any vowel in unstressed syllables, include Valencian and North-Western Catalan. [79]
Regarding consonants, betacism and fricative–affricate alternations are the most prominent differences between dialects.
Other dialectal features are:
Catalan shares features with neighboring Romance languages (Occitan, Italian, Sardinian, French, Spanish). [99]
In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters. [100] Also, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets like amic ('male friend') vs. amiga ('female friend'). [100]
Original | Tots els éssers humans neixen/naixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets. Són dotats de raó i de consciència, i han de comportar-se fraternalment els uns amb els altres. |
---|---|
Old Catalan (Around the 13th century) IPA | [ˈtodz̺‿əlz̺‿ˈes̺əɾz̺‿uˈmanz̺ˈnəʃənˈʎiwɾəz̺‿iːˈɣwalz̺‿əndigniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾəts̺ s̺ondotats̺ðəraˈoiðəkonˈs̺s̻jɛns̻ja,j‿andəkompoɾˈtaɾs̺əfɾatəɾnalˈment‿əlz̺‿ˈunz̺‿amb‿əlz̺‿altɾəs̺] |
Balearic Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesəz‿uˈmanzˈnəʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿əndiŋniˈdat‿j‿ənˈdɾəts sondotatsðərəˈoiðəkonˈsjɛnsjə,j‿andəkompoɾˈtasːəfɾətəɾnalˈment‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
Eastern Central Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿əlz‿ˈesəz‿uˈmanzˈnɛʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈɣwalz‿əndiŋniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾɛts sondutatsðərəˈoiðəkunˈsjɛnsjə,j‿andəkumpurˈtasəfɾətərnalˈmen‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
Northern Catalan IPA | [ˈtudz‿əlz‿ˈe̞səz‿uˈmanzˈne̞ʃənˈʎiwɾəz‿iːˈgwalz‿əndiŋniˈtat‿j‿ənˈdɾe̞ts sundutatsdərəˈuidəkunˈsjensjə,j‿andəkumpurˈtasəfɾətərnalˈme̞n‿əlz‿ˈunz‿əmb‿əlz‿altɾəs] |
North-Western Catalan IPA | [ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈesez‿uˈmanzˈnajʃenˈʎiwɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿endiŋniˈtat‿j‿enˈdɾets sondotatsðeraˈo‿jðekonˈsjɛnsja,j‿andekompoɾˈtasefɾateɾnalˈmen‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿altɾes] |
Valencian IPA | [ˈtodz‿elz‿ˈeseɾz‿uˈmanzˈnajʃenˈʎiwɾez‿iːˈɣwalz‿endiŋniˈtat‿j‿enˈdɾets sondotatsðeraˈo‿jðekonˈsjɛnsja,j‿andekompoɾˈtaɾsefɾateɾnalˈment‿elz‿ˈunz‿amb‿elz‿atɾes] |
In phonology, an allophone is one of multiple possible spoken sounds – or phones – or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, the voiceless plosive (as in stop
Catalan, known in the Valencian Community and Carche as Valencian, is a Western Romance language. It is the official language of Andorra, and an official language of two autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia and the Balearic Islands. It is also an official language in Valencia, where it is called Valencian. It has semi-official status in the Italian comune of Alghero, and it is spoken in the Pyrénées-Orientales department of France and in two further areas in eastern Spain: the eastern strip of Aragon and the Carche area in the Region of Murcia. The Catalan-speaking territories are often called the Països Catalans or "Catalan Countries".
A lateral is a consonant in which the airstream proceeds along one or both of the sides of the tongue, but it is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth. An example of a lateral consonant is the English L, as in Larry. Lateral consonants contrast with central consonants, in which the airstream flows through the center of the mouth.
Valencian or Valencian language is the official, historical and traditional name used in the Valencian Community of Spain, and unofficially in the El Carche comarca in Murcia, to refer to the Romance language also known as Catalan. The Valencian Community's 1982 Statute of Autonomy and the Spanish Constitution officially recognise Valencian as the regional language.
Pharyngealization is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound.
A digraph or digram is a pair of characters used in the orthography of a language to write either a single phoneme, or a sequence of phonemes that does not correspond to the normal values of the two characters combined.
In phonetics, palato-alveolar or palatoalveolar consonants are postalveolar consonants, nearly always sibilants, that are weakly palatalized with a domed (bunched-up) tongue. They are common sounds cross-linguistically and occur in English words such as ship and chip.
The voiced palatal plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound in some vocal languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɟ⟩, a barred dotless ⟨j⟩ that was initially created by turning the type for a lowercase letter ⟨f⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is J\
.
The voiceless palatal plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound used in some vocal languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨c⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is c
.
The Catalan and Valencian orthographies encompass the spelling and punctuation of standard Catalan and Valencian. There are also several adapted variants to the peculiarities of local dialects of Insular Catalan.
The phonology of the Hungarian language is notable for its process of vowel harmony, the frequent occurrence of geminate consonants and the presence of otherwise uncommon palatal stops.
In linguistics, assibilation is a sound change resulting in a sibilant consonant. It is a form of spirantization and is commonly the final phase of palatalization.
This article discusses the phonological system of Standard Macedonian based on the Prilep-Bitola dialect. For discussion of other dialects, see Macedonian dialects. Macedonian possesses five vowels, one semivowel, three liquid consonants, three nasal stops, three pairs of fricatives, two pairs of affricates, a non-paired voiceless fricative, nine pairs of voiced and unvoiced consonants and four pairs of stops.
Old Catalan is the modern denomination for Romance varieties that during the Middle Ages were spoken in territories that spanned roughly the territories of the Principality of Catalonia, the Kingdom of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and the island of Sardinia; all of them then part of the Crown of Aragon. These varieties were part of a dialect continuum with what today is called Old Occitan that reached the Loire Valley in the north and Northern Italy in the east. Consequently, Old Catalan can be considered a dialect group of Old Occitan, or be classified as an Occitano-Romance variety side by side with Old Occitan.
As a member of the dialect continuum of Romance languages, Catalan displays linguistic features similar to those of its closest neighbors. The following features represent in some cases unique changes in the evolution of Catalan from Vulgar Latin; other features are common in other Romance-speaking areas.
The Catalan dialects feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages; both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Mutual intelligibility between its dialects is very high, estimates ranging from 90% to 95%. The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Alguerese dialect.
Palatalization is a historical-linguistic sound change that results in a palatalized articulation of a consonant or, in certain cases, a front vowel. Palatalization involves change in the place or manner of articulation of consonants, or the fronting or raising of vowels. In some cases, palatalization involves assimilation or lenition.
Palatalization, a process of sound change in a language, was one of the most important processes affecting consonants in Vulgar Latin and its evolution into the Romance languages. This eventually resulted in a whole series of "palatal" and postalveolar consonants in most Romance languages, e.g. Italian.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)