Afghanistan–Russia relations

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Afghanistan–Russia relations
Afghanistan Russia Locator.svg
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Afghanistan 		Flag of Russia.svg
Russia
Diplomatic mission
Afghan Embassy, Moscow Russian Embassy, Kabul
Envoy
Charge d'Affaires Jamal Nasir Gharwal Ambassador Dmitry Zhirnov
Afghan embassy in Moscow, Russia. Povarskaya 42 Ponizovsky Building by Lev Kekyshev.jpg
Afghan embassy in Moscow, Russia.
Russian embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan. Russian embassy in Kabul.jpg
Russian embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan.

Relations between Afghanistan and Russia first emerged in the 19th century. At the time they were placed in the context of "The Great Game", Russian–British confrontations over Afghanistan from 1840 to 1907. [1] The Soviet Union was the first country to establish diplomatic relations with Afghanistan following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919. [2] On 28 February 1921, Afghanistan and the Soviet Russia signed a Friendship Treaty. [3] The Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan against the Basmachi movement in 1929 and 1930.

Contents

Following the Second World War, the Kingdom of Afghanistan and the Soviet Union formed a friendly relationship, and the latter provided much aid and development to Afghanistan. Following the Saur Revolution, the two countries signed a friendship treaty in 1978. In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in Operation Storm-333. This action precipitated a negative reaction in most of the Muslim world [ citation needed ], and contributing to a decline in Afghanistan's prosperity and a strengthening of lawlessness and radical elements within the country. The Russian-backed Afghan government collapsed in 1992. However, Russo-Afghan relations have improved somewhat in the years following the conflict. Russia now has an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-e-Sharif, and Afghanistan has an embassy in Moscow.

Afghanistan under Hamid Karzai is also one of the few countries that recognised the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation in 2014. [4]

Historical relations

Czarist Russia

Czarist Russia first established diplomatic relations with Afghanistan in 1837, at a time of strained diplomatic relations between Great Britain and Russia, [5] the "Great Game". Imperial Russia desired a direct trading route with India. Initial contact with Afghanistan was viewed with suspicion by the British Empire, which suspected Russia of attempting to expand its territory into the Indian subcontinent. The Russian government opened diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. This, combined with their support of Iranian ruler Mohammad Shah Qajar's attempt to conquer Herat in 1838, resulted in the British invasion of Afghanistan during the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42).

Throughout the 19th century Russia steadily advanced across Central Asia, conquering Tashkent in 1865, Samarkand and Kokand in 1868, and Khiva in 1873. Britain suggested Afghanistan as a buffer state, but following the June 1878 Congress of Berlin Russia sent a diplomatic mission to Kabul. [6] Sher Ali Khan, the Amir of Afghanistan, attempted to keep the Russian envoys out, but they arrived in Kabul on 22 July 1878. On 14 August, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission as well. [7] This incident resulted in the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

The Panjdeh incident in 1885 was the next major event in the history of Afghan-Russian relations. Once again, the British-Russian rivalry boiled over after Russia seized several oases from Afghanistan. The British threatened war, but the nations made an agreement in 1887 establishing a buffer zone in Central Asia. [8] In the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, the Russian Empire and British Empire divided up spheres of influence, with Russia agreeing to concede Afghanistan to the British side, in exchange for Central Asia and northern Iran. [9] Afghanistan was neutral in World War I, despite the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition by the Central Powers.

The 1916 Central Asian Revolt led to the Basmachi movement, which received some support from the Afghan government. The Basmachi rebels used parts of Afghanistan as a safe haven until the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, when Vladimir Lenin and other communist party leaders made efforts to gain support from the considerable Muslim population of their country. [5] In the wake of World War I, the Bolsheviks were occupied with the Russian Civil War and other domestic issues, so Russia appeared less threatening than British imperialism. In 1919, war broke out for the third time in the Third Anglo-Afghan War with an Afghan invasion of British India. Soviet Russia indirectly supported Afghanistan after the war by becoming the first country to establish diplomatic relations with them in 1919, and recognizing their borders. [10] Following renewed anti-British sentiment after the Anglo-Afghan War, a non-aggression pact between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union was formalized in 1921. [3] The treaty provided for Afghan transit rights through the Soviet Union and formed the basis of friendly relations during the 1920s. Early Soviet assistance included financial aid, aircraft and attendant technical personnel, and telegraph operators. [2]

The USSR

Afghanistan–Soviet Union relations
Afghanistan Soviet Union Locator.png
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Afghanistan 		Flag of the Soviet Union.svg
Soviet Union

In 1924 and 1925, the Soviet Union and Afghanistan engaged in a conflict over the island of Urtatagai. The conflict ended with a peace treaty wherein the Soviet Union recognized the island as part of Afghanistan, and Afghanistan was forced to restrain Basmachi border raids. In 1929, during the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929), the Saqqawists revoked the treaty upon coming to power. Subsequent Basmachi incursions from northern Afghanistan prompted the beginning of the Red army intervention in Afghanistan, which succeeded at reducing Basmachi offensive capabilities. [11] A small Basmachi resurgence in late 1929 and early 1930 prompted a second intervention.

A group of Afghan and Soviet people in Moscow, c. 1991. RIAN archive 829398 Afghan ambassador grants an Order of Glory of the Republic of Afghanistan to A. Sekretaryov's family.jpg
A group of Afghan and Soviet people in Moscow, c. 1991.
A 1969 Soviet postage stamp in honor of 50 years of USSR-Afghanistan relations The Soviet Union 1969 CPA 3824 stamp (Flags of USSR and Afghanistan).png
A 1969 Soviet postage stamp in honor of 50 years of USSR-Afghanistan relations

The Cold War lasted from 1946 to 1991. The conflict shaped Soviet foreign policy towards developing countries, emphasizing the creation of puppet, proxy, and buffer states.

Afghanistan's foreign policy after 1919 was one of non-alignment. Despite this policy, the Afghanistan government still retained good terms with both the United States and the Soviet Union. The countries' treaty of neutrality and nonaggression was first signed in 1928. [12] In 1929, Ghulam Nabi served as Afghan ambassador to the Soviet Union, being stationed in Moscow. [13] In a confidential report in 1944 to the India Office, it was reported that fear of Russia was prevalent within the Afghan air force, and a question that was frequently put to British instructors was "when will the British and Americans realise that Russia is a danger to all small countries in Europe and Asia and begin to take action to counter Russian aims in the Balkans, the Mediterranean and the Near East?". [14] Upon being elected Prime Minister, Mohammad Daoud Khan pursued close relations with the Soviet Union. The Soviets began a major economic assistance program in Afghanistan in the 1950s. [15] Afghanistan's strained relations with Pakistan over the Pashtunistan issue, as well as the 1954 military pact between Pakistan and the United States, was another large reason of the closer relations (but whilst maintaining non-alignment). [16] [17]

Between 1954 and 1978, Afghanistan received more than $1 billion in Soviet aid, including substantial military assistance. From 1956, a major arms agreement with the USSR allowed Afghanistan to modernize their army for the first time since World War II. [18] The Afghan king along with the Foreign Minister paid a visit to the Soviet Union in July 1957 and again from 17 August to 4 September 1957. Along with increasing military aid, it was agreed for the Soviets to conduct petroleum exploration in northern Afghanistan. [19] The petroleum exploration initiated from the second half of 1958. [20] [21] An additional deal of economic and technical cooperation between the two countries was signed by Daoud Khan and Nikita Khrushchev in May 1959. [22] The USSR also saw its neighbor as important to its national security. [23] Further petroleum exploration by the Soviet Union in Afghanistan occurred from 1960 to 1963 in Sheberghan, Sar-e-Pul, and Faryab. [21] In 1973, the two countries announced a $200 million assistance agreement on gas and oil development, trade, transport, irrigation, and factory construction.

Despite his earlier close cooperation with the USSR, Daoud Khan led Afghanistan back towards independence and non-alignment as President of the new republic. Additionally, he sent troops as well as diplomats to neighbouring countries to build up foreign relations and decrease Afghanistan's dependence on the Soviet Union, seeking instead closer relations to the west and the United States. On a state visit to the USSR in April 1977, Daoud Khan told Leonid Brezhnev that Afghanistan shall remain free and that the Soviet Union will not be able to dictate how Afghanistan would govern. [24] Relations between the two countries turned more positive again after the communist party took power in Afghanistan. On 5 December 1978, the two countries signed a 20-year friendship treaty. [25] [26] However relations turned sour again after the killing of Nur Muhammad Taraki in 1979. [27] [23] There were four main motivations for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. First, the Soviet belief that Afghanistan had strategic importance for the security of their borders. This belief was consistent with longstanding Russian foreign policy that emphasized security through expansionism and the establishment of physical barriers in the form of buffer states. The second reason for invasion was the possibility of interrupting Chinese and American efforts to establish greater political influence in Afghanistan before Soviet intervention would entail direct confrontation of those two rival powers. The third reason was to enforce the dominance of Marxist–Leninist revolutionary ideals, above the emergent Islamic ideology in Afghanistan. Lastly, the Soviets were aware of the imperial advantages of direct intervention and occupation. In particular, they were interested in securing unfettered access to the raw materials and inexpensive manufactured goods of their smaller neighbour. Around this time, the Soviets were also experiencing success in influencing affairs in the Middle East, such as the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. The invasion earned the Soviet Union almost universal condemnation by the international community. [28] [29] The Soviet intervention has also been analysed with the model of the resource curse. The 1979 coup in Iran saw a massive increase in the scarcity and price of oil, adding tens of billions of dollars to the Soviet economy. The oil boom may have overinflated national confidence, serving as a catalyst for the invasion. The Politburo was temporarily relieved of financial constraints and sought to fulfill a long-term geopolitical goal of seizing the lead in the region between Central Asia and the Gulf. [30]

Following the 1979 invasion, the Soviets augmented their large aid commitments to shore up the Afghan economy and modernize the Afghan military. They provided the Karmal regime an unprecedented $800 million.[ citation needed ] During their 10-year occupation of Afghanistan, the Soviets established 100 gas wells, and pipelines that shipped fuel into Soviet Central Asia. [31] [29]

The Soviet Union supported the Najibullah regime even after the withdrawal of Soviet troops in February 1989. Today, unresolved questions concerning Soviet MIA/POWs in Afghanistan remain an issue between Russia and Afghanistan.[ citation needed ]

The Russian Federation (1990-2021)

Under Boris Yeltsin all aid to the Najibullah regime was cut causing newly independent Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan to send food to Afghanistan in a effort to save the regime. The cut of Russian exports led to a inability to equip and provide the large pro government militias and army with what they needed causing loyalty to waver and eventually leading to Najibullah's overthrow in April of 1992. [32] [33]

During the Afghan Civil War (1992-96), the Soviet House of Science and Culture in west Kabul was destroyed during fighting between rival factions. [34]

In 1993, Tajik rebels based in Afghanistan attacked a Russian border outpost in Tajikistan amid the Tajikistani Civil War, killing 25 Russians and prompting Russian retaliatory strikes, [35] which caused extensive damage in northern Afghanistan. Reports of Afghan support for the rebels, part of the United Tajik Opposition against the Dushanbe government, led to cool relations between Russia and Afghanistan.

Russia became increasingly disenchanted with the Taliban over their support for Chechen rebels and for providing a sanctuary for terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself. Russia provided military assistance to the Afghan Northern Alliance, who eventually proved to be a major force in the efforts to overthrow the Taliban regime following United States intervention in 2001.

In 2003 the Russian government listed the Taliban as a terrorist organization. [36]

In October 2005, Russian defence officials stated they would be giving helicopters and other military equipment to Afghanistan's army worth $30 million USD. [37]

Hamid Karzai and Dmitry Medvedev Dmitry Medvedev in Uzbekistan 11 June 2010-13.jpeg
Hamid Karzai and Dmitry Medvedev

In October 2010, Afghan President Hamid Karzai reprimanded Russia after its forces entered the country without permission. He also stated that Russia has "violated Afghan sovereignty" in a joint mission with United States agents. [38]

However, after Russia's relations with the West soured following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War, Moscow decided to become active and expand its role in Afghanistan, according to Omar Nassar, the director of the Moscow-based Center for Contemporary Afghan Studies (CISA). [39]

Russia's more active involvement in Afghanistan includes business investment proposals, diplomatic propaganda, cultural programs, financial and military support for the central government, power influence in the north and with the Taliban. Since 2016, it has provided the Afghan government with tens of thousands of Kalashnikov rifles and millions of rounds of ammunition. [40] Moscow has already launched several efforts at diplomacy. Between December 2016 and April 2017, Russia hosted three rounds of talks involving China, Iran, and Pakistan. In the third round, it included Afghanistan, as well. [40]

In 2017, a new Russian cultural center was built and (re-)opened in Kabul's Darulaman Road, on the same site as the former Soviet-era House of Science and Culture which was built in 1982 and damaged by war in the 1990s. [41] [42]

A ceremony was held in Moscow on 28 May 2019 marking the 100th anniversary of diplomatic relations. It was followed by talks between Afghan politicians and a Taliban delegation in an effort to form peace in the Taliban insurgency in Afghanistan. [43]

Taliban return to power (2021-)

Russia’s reaction to the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021 was pragmatic and restrained. Russia, like most other states, did not formally recognize the Taliban regime or even removed Taliban from its list of terrorist organizations; however, the Russian embassy in Kabul expressed early readiness to interact with the new de facto authorities. [44]

On 9 April 2022, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs accredited Taliban appointee Jamal Nasir Gharwal as charge d'affaires of the Afghan Embassy in Moscow. [45]

The Russian embassy is one of only a handful to remain open in Kabul; in September 2022 Taliban government signed a provisional agreement with Russia to import petroleum products and wheat at a discount. [46]

On 28 May 2024 Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov said that Russia would soon remove the Taliban from their list of state sponsors of terrorism; this would lead to the full normalization of relations. The Taliban were invited to the June 2024 St. Petersburg International Economic Forum. [36]

Related Research Articles

The foreign relations of Afghanistan are in a transitional phase since the 2021 fall of Kabul to the Taliban and the collapse of the internationally-recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. No country has recognised the new Taliban-run government, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Although some countries have engaged in informal diplomatic contact with the Islamic Emirate, formal relations remain limited to representatives of the Islamic Republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohammad Daoud Khan</span> Afghan prime minister (1953–1963) and president (1973–1978)

Mohammad Daoud Khan was an Afghan military officer and politician who served as prime minister of Afghanistan from 1953 to 1963 and, as leader of the 1973 Afghan coup d'état which overthrew the monarchy, served as the first president of Afghanistan from 1973 until his assassination in the Saur Revolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soviet–Afghan War</span> 1979–1989 armed conflict in Central Asia

The Soviet–Afghan War was a protracted armed conflict fought in the Soviet-controlled Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) from 1979 to 1989. The war was a major conflict of the Cold War as it saw extensive fighting between Soviet Union, the DRA and allied paramilitary groups against the Afghan mujahideen and their allied foreign fighters. While the mujahideen were backed by various countries and organizations, the majority of their support came from Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The involvement of the foreign powers made the war a proxy war between the United States and the Soviet Union. Combat took place throughout the 1980s, mostly in the Afghan countryside. The war resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000,000 Afghans, while millions more fled from the country as refugees; most externally displaced Afghans sought refuge in Pakistan and in Iran. Approximately 6.5% to 11.5% of Afghanistan's erstwhile population of 13.5 million people is estimated to have been killed over the course of the conflict. The Soviet–Afghan War caused grave destruction throughout Afghanistan and has also been cited by scholars as a significant factor that contributed to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, formally ending the Cold War. It is also commonly referred to as "the Soviet Union's Vietnam".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Game</span> 19th-century Anglo-Russian confrontation

The Great Game was a rivalry between the 19th-century British and Russian empires over influence in Central Asia, primarily in Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. The two colonial empires used military interventions and diplomatic negotiations to acquire and redefine territories in Central and South Asia. Russia conquered Turkestan, and Britain expanded and set the borders of British colonial India. By the early 20th century, a line of independent states, tribes, and monarchies from the shore of the Caspian Sea to the Eastern Himalayas were made into protectorates and territories of the two empires.

Afghanistan is a mountainous landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Some of the invaders in the history of Afghanistan include the Maurya Empire, the ancient Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan, the Timurid Empire of Timur, the Mughal Empire, various Persian Empires, the Sikh Empire, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and most recently the United States with a number of allies in response to the September 11 attacks. A reduced number of NATO troops remained in the country in support of the government. Just prior to the American withdrawal in 2021, the Taliban regained control of the capital Kabul and most of the country. They changed Afghanistan's official name to the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of the Soviet Union</span> Diplomatic and military policies of the Eurasian country

After the Russian Revolution, in which the Bolsheviks took over parts of the collapsing Russian Empire in 1918, they faced enormous odds against the German Empire and eventually negotiated terms to pull out of World War I. They then went to war against the White movement, pro-independence movements, rebellious peasants, former supporters, anarchists and foreign interventionists in the bitter civil war. They set up the Soviet Union in 1922 with Vladimir Lenin in charge. At first, it was treated as an unrecognized pariah state because of its repudiating of tsarist debts and threats to destroy capitalism at home and around the world. By 1922, Moscow had repudiated the goal of world revolution, and sought diplomatic recognition and friendly trade relations with the capitalist world, starting with Britain and Germany. Finally, in 1933, the United States gave recognition. Trade and technical help from Germany and the United States arrived in the late 1920s. After Lenin died in 1924, Joseph Stalin, became leader. He transformed the country in the 1930s into an industrial and military power. It strongly opposed Nazi Germany until August 1939, when it suddenly came to friendly terms with Berlin in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Moscow and Berlin by agreement invaded and partitioned Poland and the Baltic States. Stalin ignored repeated warnings that Hitler planned to invade. He was caught by surprise in June 1941 when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. The Soviet forces nearly collapsed as the Germans reached the outskirts of Leningrad and Moscow. However, the Soviet Union proved strong enough to defeat Nazi Germany, with help from its key World War II allies, Britain and the United States. The Soviet army occupied most of Eastern Europe and increasingly controlled the governments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khalq</span> Faction of the Peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan

Khalq was a faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). Its historical de facto leaders were Nur Muhammad Taraki (1967–1979), Hafizullah Amin (1979) and Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy (1979–1990). It was also the name of the leftist newspaper produced by the same movement. The Khalq wing was formed in 1967 after the split of the party due to bitter resentment with the rival Parcham faction which had a differing revolutionary strategy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between Afghanistan and the United States began in 1921 under the leaderships of King Amanullah Khan and President Warren G. Harding, respectively. The first contact between the two nations occurred further back in the 1830s when the first recorded person from the United States explored Afghanistan. The United States government foreign aid program provided about $500 million in aid for economic development; the aid ended before the 1978 Saur Revolution. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was a turning point in the Cold War, when the United States started to financially support the Afghan resistance. The country, under both the Carter and Reagan administrations committed $3 billion dollars in financial and diplomatic support and along with Pakistan also rendering critical support to the anti-Soviet Mujahideen forces. Beginning in 1980, the United States began admitting thousands of Afghan refugees for resettlement, and provided money and weapons to the Mujahideen through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). The USSR withdrew its troops in 1989.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russia–United Kingdom relations</span> Bilateral relations

Russia–United Kingdom relations, also Anglo-Russian relations, are the bilateral relations between Russia and the United Kingdom. Formal ties between the nations started in 1553. Russia and Britain became allies against Napoleon in the early-19th century. They were enemies in the Crimean War of the 1850s, and rivals in the Great Game for control of central Asia in the latter half of the 19th century. They allied again in World Wars I and II, although the Russian Revolution of 1917 strained relations. The two countries again became enemies during the Cold War (1947–1989). Russia's business tycoons developed strong ties with London financial institutions in the 1990s after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, relations became very tense after the United Kingdom imposed sanctions against Russia. It was subsequently added to Russia's list of "unfriendly countries".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–Germany relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between Afghanistan and Germany date back to the late 19th century and have historically been strong. 100 years of "friendship" were celebrated in 2016, with the Afghan President calling it a "historical relationship".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraq–Russia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Iraq–Russia relations are the bilateral relations between Iraq and Russia and, prior to Russia's independence, between Iraq and the Soviet Union. The current Iraqi Ambassador to Russia is Haidar Mansour Hadi Al-Athari who has been serving his second post in Moscow since June 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–Pakistan relations</span> Bilateral relations

Afghanistan–Pakistan relations refer to the bilateral ties between Afghanistan and Pakistan. In August 1947, the partition of British India led to the emergence of Pakistan along Afghanistan's eastern frontier, and the two countries have since had a strained relationship; Afghanistan was the sole country to vote against Pakistan's admission into the United Nations following the latter's independence. Territorial disputes along the widely known "Durand Line" and conflicting claims prevented the normalization of bilateral ties between the countries throughout the mid-20th century. Various Afghan government officials and Afghan nationalists have made irredentist claims to large swathes of Pakistan's territory in modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistani Balochistan, which complete the traditional homeland of "Pashtunistan" for the Pashtun people. Afghan territorial claims over Pashtun-majority areas that are in Pakistan were coupled with discontent over the permanency of the Durand Line which has long been considered the international border by every nation other than Afghanistan, and for which Afghanistan demanded a renegotiation, with the aim of having it shifted eastward to the Indus River. During the Taliban insurgency, the Taliban has received substantial financial and logistical backing from Pakistan, which remains a significant source of support. Nonetheless, Pakistan's support for the Taliban is not without risks, as it involves playing a precarious and delicate game. Further Afghanistan–Pakistan tensions have arisen concerning a variety of issues, including the Afghan conflict and Afghan refugees in Pakistan, water-sharing rights, and a continuously warming relationship between Afghanistan and India, but most of all the Taliban government in Afghanistan providing sanctuary and safe havens to Pakistani Taliban terrorists to attack Pakistani territory. Border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan have escalated to an unprecedented degree following recent instances of violence along the border. The Durand Line witnesses frequent occurrences of suicide bombings, airstrikes, or street battles on an almost daily basis. The Taliban-led Afghan government has also accused Pakistan of undermining relations between Afghanistan and China and creating discord between the neighbouring countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan–Russia relations</span> Bilateral relations

The Soviet Union and Pakistan first established the diplomatic and bilateral relations on 1 May 1948.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–China relations</span> Bilateral relations

Diplomatic relations between Afghanistan and China were established in the 18th century, when Afghanistan was ruled by Ahmad Shah Durrani and China by Qianlong. But trade relations between these nations date back to at least the Han dynasty with the profitable Silk Road. Presently, China has an embassy in Kabul and Afghanistan has one in Beijing. The two countries share a 92 km (57 mi) border.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–Japan relations</span> Bilateral relations

Diplomatic relations between Afghanistan and Japan were officially established in 1931, although early contacts date back to 1907 when the Afghan general Ayub Khan, who defeated the British in the Battle of Maiwand, visited Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inter-Services Intelligence activities in Afghanistan</span> Pakistani covert action in Afghanistan

Pakistan's principal intelligence and covert action agency, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), has historically conducted a number of clandestine operations in its western neighbor, Afghanistan. ISI's covert support to militant jihadist insurgent groups in Afghanistan, the Pashtun-dominated former Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and Kashmir has earned it a wide reputation as the primary progenitor of many active South Asian jihadist groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakistan–Soviet Union relations</span> Bilateral relations

Pakistan and the Soviet Union had complex and tense relations. During the Cold War (1947–1991), Pakistan was a part of Western Bloc of the First World and a close ally of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations</span> Bilateral relations

Bilateral relations of Afghanistan and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland span a long and eventful history, dating back to the United Kingdom's Company rule in India, the British-Russian rivalry in Central Asia, and the border between modern Afghanistan and British India. There has been an Afghan embassy in London since 1922 though there was no accredited Afghan ambassador from 1981 to 2001.

Shir Muhammad-bek Gazi, also known as Mahmud-Bek also known under the nickname Korshirmat was a prominent figure of the Basmachi Movement in exile since 1923, the first head of the Turkestan Union during the Great Patriotic War with the support of the Abwehr to restore the insurrectionary movement in Turkestan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cold War in Asia</span>

The Cold War in Asia was a major dimension of the worldwide Cold War that shaped diplomacy and warfare from the mid-1940s to 1991. The main countries involved were the United States, the Soviet Union, China, North Korea, South Korea, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Taiwan. In the late 1950s, divisions between China and the Soviet Union deepened, culminating in the Sino-Soviet split, and the two then vied for control of communist movements across the world, especially in Asia.

References

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  2. 1 2 "Afghanistan | Boundless World History".
  3. 1 2 "Russia's treaties of friendship and cooperation in Asia". Monterey, California: U.S. Naval Postgraduate School. March 1980.
  4. ↑ Rosenberg, Matthew (23 March 2014). "Why Afghanistan backs Russian takeover in Crimea". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
  5. 1 2 The Soviet Union and the Muslim World 1917-1958, University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1959
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  15. ↑ Payind, Alam (1989). "Soviet-Afghan Relations from Cooperation to Occupation". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 21 (1): 107–128. doi:10.1017/S002074380003213X. JSTOR   163642. S2CID   154803951.
  16. ↑ "U.S-Pakistan Military Cooperation". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  17. ↑ Chhabra, Amit K. (22 November 2011). "Breakthrough or Breakdown? U.S.-Pakistan Military Alliance of 1954 - Page 3 of 6". Foreign Policy Journal. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  18. ↑ Oliker, Olga (2011). "20th-Century Security Aid to Afghanistan Before the Soviet Invasion". Historical Overview. RAND Corporation. pp. 3–18. ISBN   9780833051684. JSTOR   10.7249/mg1078a.10.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ "SOVIET AID TO AFGHANISTAN - CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 23 January 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  20. ↑ "Soviet to Seek Afghan Oil". The New York Times. 9 January 1958. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  21. 1 2 Mehrad, Ahmad Tamim; Zvolinski, V P; Kapralova, D O; Niazmand, Milad Ahmad (12 December 2020). "Assessment of oil and gas resources of northern Afghanistan and their impact on energy security in the country". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 976 (1): 012038. Bibcode:2020MS&E..976a2038T. doi: 10.1088/1757-899x/976/1/012038 . ISSN   1757-899X.
  22. ↑ Hilali, A. Z. (2005). "The Soviet penetration into Afghanistan and the Marxist Coup". The Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 18 (4): 673–716. doi:10.1080/13518040500354984. S2CID   145101689.
  23. 1 2 "USSR and Afghanistan sign "friendship treaty"". HISTORY. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  24. ↑ "Rise of Anti-Soviet Sentiment - History of Western Civilization II". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  25. ↑ Whitney, Craig R. (6 December 1978). "20-Year Treaty Moves Afghans Closer to Soviet". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  26. ↑ Dalziel, Stephen (1993). The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire. New York: Smithmark. p. 76. ISBN   0-8317-7368-5. Soviet involvement increased with the signing of the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness in December 1978.
  27. ↑ Payind, Alam (1989). "Soviet-Afghan Relations from Cooperation to Occupation". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 21 (1): 107–128. doi:10.1017/S002074380003213X. JSTOR   163642. S2CID   154803951.
  28. ↑ Garg, J. P.. 1981. "Russian penetration in Third World with special reference to Afghanistan". The Indian Journal of Political Science 42 (4).: 72–84.
  29. 1 2 "Soviets grab Afghan resources, saving their own". Christian Science Monitor. 22 December 1982. ISSN   0882-7729 . Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  30. ↑ Brown, James D. J. (1 January 2013). "Oil Fueled? The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan". Post-Soviet Affairs. 29 (1): 56–94. doi: 10.1080/1060586X.2013.778543 . ISSN   1060-586X.
  31. ↑ "Afghans Seek Oil, Gas Field Data From Russia". Los Angeles Times. 21 December 2002. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
  32. ↑ Gibson, Joshua James (2015). An Unsustainable Arrangement: The Collapse of the Republic of Afghanistan in 1992 (MA thesis). Ohio State University. Retrieved 12 November 2022.
  33. ↑ Webber, Mark (1992). "The Third World and the Dissolution of the USSR". Third World Quarterly. 13 (4): 691–713. doi:10.1080/01436599208420305. JSTOR   3992384. Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
  34. ↑ Bowley, Graham (11 February 2012). "Kabul's Soviet Ruins Offer a Reminder of Imperial Ambitions". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  35. ↑ "45 Reported Killed in a Clash in Tajikistan". The New York Times. Reuters. 19 July 1993. Retrieved 5 July 2018.
  36. 1 2 "Diplomat: Russia moving closer to delisting Afghanistan's Taliban as terrorist group". 27 May 2024.
  37. ↑ "Tourists flee devastated flood area". Chicago Tribune . 10 October 2005. Retrieved 27 December 2014. Russia will supply Afghanistan's fledgling army with helicopters and equipment worth $30 million
  38. ↑ "News from California, the nation and world". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  39. ↑ Nazimi, Waslat Hasrat. "Russia's new role in Afghanistan". Deutsche Welle .
  40. 1 2 Gurganus, Julia (2018). "Russia's Afghanistan Strategy". Foreign Affairs.
  41. ↑ "Russia house of science and culture to re-open in Kabul". didpress.com. 15 February 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
  42. ↑ "Russia rebuilds a cultural center in Kabul for a new era of influence - The Washington Post". The Washington Post .
  43. ↑ "Hosting Taliban Delegates, Russia Calls for Withdrawal of Foreign Forces from Afghanistan". Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty.
  44. ↑ Russia’s Approach to Afghanistan Following the Taliban Takeover
  45. ↑ "Russia Latest Country to Establish Diplomatic Ties With Taliban". Voice of America . 9 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
  46. ↑ "Taliban signs 'preliminary' deal with Russia for oil, gas, wheat". Al Jazeera . 28 September 2022. Retrieved 10 August 2023.

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