Alitta succinea | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Annelida |
Clade: | Pleistoannelida |
Subclass: | Errantia |
Order: | Phyllodocida |
Family: | Nereididae |
Genus: | Alitta |
Species: | A. succinea |
Binomial name | |
Alitta succinea | |
Alitta succinea (known as the pile worm, clam worm or cinder worm) [2] is a species of marine annelid in the family Nereididae (commonly known as ragworms or sandworms). [3] It has been recorded throughout the North West Atlantic, as well as in the Gulf of Maine and South Africa. [1]
The Alitta succinea has a long, elongated, cylindrical body divided into 160 segments, with four eyes, and two antennae on the front, resembling a pear shape with the posterior of its body being longer. The clam worm can reach up to 15 centimetres (6 in) in length, but most specimens are smaller than this. It is brown colored at the rear, and reddish-brown on the rest of its body. It has an identifiable head with four eyes, two sensory feelers or palps, and many tentacles. The head consists of two segments: the anterior and posterior prostomium. The last body segment is known as the pygidium. The jaws of the clam worm are partly composed of zinc, making them lightweight compared to calcified jaws, whilst still maintaining strength. [4]
It is a freeswimming polychaete, scavenging on the bottom of shallow marine waters. It feeds on other worms and algae. To feed, it uses a proboscis, which has two hooks at the end, to grasp prey and draw it into its mouth. They can protect themselves by secreting a mucus substance that hardens to form a sheath around them. [5]
During lunar phases in the spring and early summer, the clam worm undergoes epigamy. Their parapodia enlarge so they can swim. The clam worms are then capable of releasing eggs and sperm. Soon after they have released their eggs or sperm, they die. [5]
Planktonic larvae develop, grow into adults and eventually sink to the bottom of the water. [3]
Alitta succinea reproduce sexually like most of the class Polychaetea. Commonly known as the clam worm, fertilization normally occurs externally and the sexes are separate. (sexual reproduction). Epitoky is a process that occurs in polychaete, where a sexually immature worm (apitoke) is transformed into a sexual mature worm (epitoke). There are two methods of Epitoky (schizogamy and epigamy). [6]
When Sexual maturity is achieved individuals who metamorphose into a nektonic (free swimming) heternoneid form (free swimming di-morphic sexual individual). It is similar to the non reproductive form of the worm however, the parapodia are more apparent (larger) and can be lobal. Modifications of the heternoneid form may include a enhanced swimming ability (parapodia enlargement), body cavity filled with gametes, large eyes, incomplete gut formation. [7] Females produce a pheromone attracting and signaling males to shed sperm which in turn stimulates the females to shed eggs, this feature is known as swarming. Both sexes swim to the surface to release gametes, and swarming increases chances of fertilization. Environmental factors can also trigger swarming such as tempertature, salinity, light levels. It is said, Alitta succinea reproduction can be in sync with Lunar cycles. [8] Normally reproduction can occur around early spring and may go into summer. Both sexes die after swarming and after fertilization most eggs become planktonic, although some are retained in the worm tubes or burrow in jelly masses attached to the tubes (egg brooders). Eggs develop into trochophore Larva, then metamorphosis later into juvenile (body lengthen), and later develop into adults.
To feed, it uses a proboscis, which has two hooks at the end, to grasp prey and draw it into its mouth. Clam worms are an important food source for bottom-feeding fish and crustaceans, though they also feed on different species of aquatic plants such as algae and diatoms. [9] By feeding on organic matter and types of waste and debris that is in the surrounding water the worm is commonly classified as a deposit feeder, more specifically omnivorous. [10] They are also commonly preyed upon and an important food source for many animals. Crab, fish, and shorebirds are the most common predators for the clam worm. [9] Populations in the Caspian Sea are heavily influenced by the predation of fish. [11] The species was brought over to the Caspian Sea to increase the fish populations for the use of commercial fishing.
Alitta succinea have been recorded to be indicators of imbalances in their habitats. Populations in the Black Sea have been shown to indicate changes in the water chemistry. [10] Die-offs of the species can occur when there are hostile environmental changes in the habitats they live in. [9] Shore bird populations commonly decline when populations of the clam worm dissipate.
The Alitta succinea was first introduced to bodies of water to enhance the salinity and bring in new hybrids of fish that could be sold for a larger quota. [12] In the present day, Alitta succinea is used in different wildlife situations to determine the pollutants present, their levels, and how they affect the wildlife in that area. [13] Additionally, Alitta succinea is used as bait for fishing, resulting in increased fish, crab, and oyster harvesting in newly restored reefs on the mainland. [14]
Synonyms of Alitta succinea include: [1]
A. succinea is dispersed outside of its native range in the course of oyster farming and fishing, [15] on the oysters themselves, in ballast water, as hull fouling, on normal ocean currents, and possibly in sport fishing bait. [16]
Polychaeta is a paraphyletic class of generally marine annelid worms, commonly called bristle worms or polychaetes. Each body segment has a pair of fleshy protrusions called parapodia that bear many bristles, called chaetae, which are made of chitin. More than 10,000 species are described in this class. Common representatives include the lugworm and the sandworm or clam worm Alitta.
The genus Glycera is a group of oligochaetas commonly known as bloodworms. They are typically found on the bottom of shallow marine waters, and some species can grow up to 35 cm (14 in) in length.
Nereis is a genus of polychaete worms in the family Nereididae. It comprises many species, most of which are marine. Nereis possess setae and parapodia for locomotion and gas exchange. They may have two types of setae, which are found on the parapodia. Acicular setae provide support. Locomotor setae are for crawling, and are the bristles that are visible on the exterior of the Polychaeta. They are cylindrical in shape, found not only in sandy areas, and they are adapted to burrow. They often cling to seagrass (posidonia) or other grass on rocks and sometimes gather in large groups.
Epitoky is a process that occurs in many species of polychaete marine worms wherein a sexually immature worm is modified or transformed into a sexually mature worm. Epitokes are pelagic morphs capable of sexual reproduction. Unlike the immature form, which is typically benthic, epitokes are specialized for swimming as well as reproducing. The primary benefit to epitoky is increased chances of finding other members of the same species for reproduction.
Nereididae are a family of polychaete worms. It contains about 500 – mostly marine – species grouped into 42 genera. They may be commonly called ragworms or clam worms.
Eunicidae is a family of marine polychaetes. The family comprises marine annelids distributed in diverse benthic habitats across Oceania, Europe, South America, North America, Asia and Africa. The Eunicid anatomy typically consists of a pair of appendages near the mouth (mandibles) and complex sets of muscular structures on the head (maxillae) in an eversible pharynx. One of the most conspicuous of the eunicids is the giant, dark-purple, iridescent "Bobbit worm", a bristle worm found at low tide under boulders on southern Australian shores. Its robust, muscular body can be as long as 2 m. Eunicidae jaws are known from as far back as Ordovician sediments. Cultural tradition surrounds Palola worm reproductive cycles in the South Pacific Islands. Eunicidae are economically valuable as bait in both recreational and commercial fishing. Commercial bait-farming of Eunicidae can have adverse ecological impacts. Bait-farming can deplete worm and associated fauna population numbers, damage local intertidal environments and introduce alien species to local aquatic ecosystems.
Alitta virens is an annelid worm that burrows in wet sand and mud. They construct burrows of different shapes They range from being very complex to very simple. Long term burrows are held together by mucus. Their burrows are not connected to each other; they are generally solitary creatures. The spacing between the burrows depends on how readily they can propagate water signals.
Nereis vexillosa belongs to the phylum Annelida, a group known as the segmented worms. It is generally iridescent green and can reach 30 cm in length. It can be distinguished by the size of the upper ligules on the notopodia of the posterior region of the body. The upper ligules are much larger than the lower ligules. It is also without a collar-like structure around the peristomium.
Alitta is a genus of marine annelids in Nereididae family. There are three recognised species within the genus, Alitta grandis, Alitta succinea and Alitta virens. Alitta brandti Malmgren, 1865 was originally considered part of the genus, but is now accepted as Neanthes brandti.
Sabellastarte spectabilis is a species of benthic marine polychaete worm in the Sabellidae family. It is commonly known as the feather duster worm, feather duster or fan worm. It is native to tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific but has spread to other parts of the world. It is popular in aquariums because of its distinctive appearance and its ability to remove organic particles and improve water quality.
Phyllodocida is an order of polychaete worms in the subclass Aciculata. These worms are mostly marine, though some are found in brackish water. Most are active benthic creatures, moving over the surface or burrowing in sediments, or living in cracks and crevices in bedrock. A few construct tubes in which they live and some are pelagic, swimming through the water column. There are estimated to be more than 4,600 accepted species in the order.
Cirratulus cirratus is a species of marine polychaete worm in the family Cirratulidae. It occurs in the littoral and sub-littoral zones of the Atlantic Ocean.
Platynereis dumerilii is a species of annelid polychaete worm. It was originally placed into the genus Nereis and later reassigned to the genus Platynereis. Platynereis dumerilii lives in coastal marine waters from temperate to tropical zones. It can be found in a wide range from the Azores, the Mediterranean, in the North Sea, the English Channel, and the Atlantic down to the Cape of Good Hope, in the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Sea of Japan, the Pacific, and the Kerguelen Islands. Platynereis dumerilii is today an important lab animal, it is considered as a living fossil, and it is used in many phylogenetic studies as a model organism.
Hediste diversicolor, commonly known as a ragworm, is a polychaete worm in the family Nereididae. It lives in a burrow in the sand or mud of beaches and estuaries in intertidal zones in the north Atlantic. This species is used in research, but its classification is in dispute; in the literature, it is often classified as Nereis diversicolor. Its specific name "diversicolor" refers to the fact that its colour changes from brown to green as the breeding season approaches.
Eulagisca gigantea is a species of scale worm. This species is specifically found in the deep-sea in cold waters like the Antarctic Ocean. The scale worms are named for the elytra on their surface that look like scales.
Neanthes fucata is a species of marine polychaete worm in the family Nereididae. It lives in association with a hermit crab such as Pagurus bernhardus. It occurs in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.
Neanthes arenaceodentata is a species of marine polychaete worm in the family Nereididae. It occurs in shallow waters in the tropical Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It has been used in the laboratory in testing the toxicity of marine sediments.
Diopatra claparedii is a species of tube-building polychaete worm of the family Onuphidae. It is found dispersed along intertidal and subtidal benthic environments of South Asian waters, especially along the coasts of Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. This species is exploited by humans for fishing bait, indication of marine pollution, and as gold and silver nanoparticle biosynthesis agents.
Pectinereis is a genus of nereid worm that contains only the species Pectinereis strickrotti. The genus name is a combination of the Latin words pectinis (comb) and Nereis. The species is named for Bruce Strickrott, lead pilot of the deep-submergence vehicle Alvin. Molecular phylogenetic analysis suggests that Pectinereis strickrotti is most closely related to Alitta, Nectoneanthes, and Nereis.