Altitude

Last updated

Altitude is a vertical measurement between a reference datum and an object. Altitude.svg
Altitude is a vertical measurement between a reference datum and an object.

Altitude is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context (e.g., aviation, geometry, geographical survey, sport, or atmospheric pressure). Although the term altitude is commonly used to mean the height above sea level of a location, in geography the term elevation is often preferred for this usage.

Contents

In aviation, altitude is typically measured relative to mean sea level or above ground level to ensure safe navigation and flight operations. In geometry and geographical surveys, altitude helps create accurate topographic maps and understand the terrain's elevation. For high-altitude trekking and sports, knowing and adapting to altitude is vital for performance and safety. Higher altitudes mean reduced oxygen levels, which can lead to altitude sickness if proper acclimatization measures are not taken.

Vertical distance measurements in the "down" direction are commonly referred to as depth .

In aviation

A Boeing 737-800 cruising in the stratosphere, where airliners typically cruise to avoid turbulence rampant in the troposphere. The blue layer is the ozone layer, fading further to the mesosphere. The ozone heats the stratosphere, making conditions stable. The stratosphere is also the altitude limit of jet aircraft and weather balloons, as the air density there is roughly .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1/1000 of that in the troposphere. Boeing 737 view 1.jpg
A Boeing 737-800 cruising in the stratosphere, where airliners typically cruise to avoid turbulence rampant in the troposphere. The blue layer is the ozone layer, fading further to the mesosphere. The ozone heats the stratosphere, making conditions stable. The stratosphere is also the altitude limit of jet aircraft and weather balloons, as the air density there is roughly 1⁄1000 of that in the troposphere.
Vertical distance comparison Vertical distances.svg
Vertical distance comparison

The term altitude can have several meanings, and is always qualified by explicitly adding a modifier (e.g. "true altitude"), or implicitly through the context of the communication. Parties exchanging altitude information must be clear which definition is being used.

Aviation altitude is measured using either mean sea level (MSL) or local ground level (above ground level, or AGL) as the reference datum.

Pressure altitude divided by 100 feet (30 m) is the flight level, and is used above the transition altitude (18,000 feet (5,500 m) in the US, but may be as low as 3,000 feet (910 m) in other jurisdictions). So when the altimeter reads the country-specific flight level on the standard pressure setting the aircraft is said to be at "Flight level XXX/100" (where XXX is the transition altitude). When flying at a flight level, the altimeter is always set to standard pressure (29.92  inHg or 1013.25  hPa).

On the flight deck, the definitive instrument for measuring altitude is the pressure altimeter, which is an aneroid barometer with a front face indicating distance (feet or metres) instead of atmospheric pressure.

There are several types of altitude in aviation:

These types of altitude can be explained more simply as various ways of measuring the altitude:

In satellite orbits

This section is an excerpt from Geocentric orbit § Altitude classifications.[ edit ]
Low (cyan) and Medium (yellow) Earth orbit regions to scale. The black dashed line is the geosynchronous orbit. The green dashed line is the 20,230 km orbit used for GPS satellites. Orbits around earth scale diagram.svg
Low (cyan) and Medium (yellow) Earth orbit regions to scale. The black dashed line is the geosynchronous orbit. The green dashed line is the 20,230 km orbit used for GPS satellites.
Transatmospheric orbit (TAO)
Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than 100 km (62 mi) and perigee that intersects with the defined atmosphere. [4]
Low Earth orbit (LEO)
Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 160 km (100 mi) to 2,000 km (1,200 mi) above mean sea level. At 160 km, one revolution takes approximately 90 minutes, and the circular orbital speed is 8 km/s (26,000 ft/s).
Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee ranging between 2,000 km (1,200 mi) and that of the geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 km (22,236 mi).
Geosynchronous orbit (GEO)
Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 35,786 km (22,236 mi). The period of the orbit equals one sidereal day, coinciding with the rotation period of the Earth. The speed is approximately 3 km/s (9,800 ft/s).
High Earth orbit (HEO)
Geocentric orbits with altitudes at apogee higher than that of the geosynchronous orbit. A special case of high Earth orbit is the highly elliptical orbit, where altitude at perigee is less than 2,000 km (1,200 mi). [5]

In atmospheric studies

Atmospheric layers

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several altitude regions. These regions start and finish at varying heights depending on season and distance from the poles. The altitudes stated below are averages: [6]

The Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 kilometres (62 mi) above sea level, by convention defines represents the demarcation between the atmosphere and space. [7] The thermosphere and exosphere (along with the higher parts of the mesosphere) are regions of the atmosphere that are conventionally defined as space.

High altitude and low pressure

Regions on the Earth's surface (or in its atmosphere) that are high above mean sea level are referred to as high altitude. High altitude is sometimes defined to begin at 2,400 meters (8,000 ft) above sea level. [8] [9] [10]

At high altitude, atmospheric pressure is lower than that at sea level. This is due to two competing physical effects: gravity, which causes the air to be as close as possible to the ground; and the heat content of the air, which causes the molecules to bounce off each other and expand. [11]

Temperature profile

The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight in the visible spectrum hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 K (60 °C; 140 °F), and the temperature would decay exponentially with height. [12]

However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F [3.0 °C] per 1000 feet) of altitude. [12]

The presence of water in the atmosphere complicates the process of convection. Water vapor contains latent heat of vaporization. As air rises and cools, it eventually becomes saturated and cannot hold its quantity of water vapor. The water vapor condenses (forming clouds), and releases heat, which changes the lapse rate from the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (5.5 °C per kilometer or 3 °F [1.7 °C] per 1000 feet). [13] As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of 6.49 °C per kilometer (3.56 °F per 1,000 feet). [14] The actual lapse rate can vary by altitude and by location.

Finally, only the troposphere (up to approximately 11 kilometres (36,000 ft) of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes notable convection; in the stratosphere, there is little vertical convection. [15]

Effects on organisms

Humans

Medicine recognizes that altitudes above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) start to affect humans, [16] and there is no record of humans living at extreme altitudes above 5,500–6,000 metres (18,000–19,700 ft) for more than two years. [17] As the altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, which affects humans by reducing the partial pressure of oxygen. [18] The lack of oxygen above 2,400 metres (8,000 ft) can cause serious illnesses such as altitude sickness, high altitude pulmonary edema, and high altitude cerebral edema. [10] The higher the altitude, the more likely are serious effects. [10] The human body can adapt to high altitude by breathing faster, having a higher heart rate, and adjusting its blood chemistry. [19] [20] It can take days or weeks to adapt to high altitude. However, above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft), (in the "death zone"), altitude acclimatization becomes impossible. [21]

There is a significantly lower overall mortality rate for permanent residents at higher altitudes. [22] Additionally, there is a dose response relationship between increasing elevation and decreasing obesity prevalence in the United States. [23] In addition, the recent hypothesis suggests that high altitude could be protective against Alzheimer's disease via action of erythropoietin, a hormone released by kidney in response to hypoxia. [24] However, people living at higher elevations have a statistically significant higher rate of suicide. [25] The cause for the increased suicide risk is unknown so far. [25]

Athletes

For athletes, high altitude produces two contradictory effects on performance. For explosive events (sprints up to 400 metres, long jump, triple jump) the reduction in atmospheric pressure signifies less atmospheric resistance, which generally results in improved athletic performance. [26] For endurance events (races of 5,000 metres or more) the predominant effect is the reduction in oxygen which generally reduces the athlete's performance at high altitude. Sports organizations acknowledge the effects of altitude on performance: the International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF), for example, marks record performances achieved at an altitude greater than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) with the letter "A". [27]

Athletes also can take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level. [28] [29] These changes are the basis of altitude training which forms an integral part of the training of athletes in a number of endurance sports including track and field, distance running, triathlon, cycling and swimming.

Other organisms

Decreased oxygen availability and decreased temperature make life at high altitude challenging. Despite these environmental conditions, many species have been successfully adapted at high altitudes. Animals have developed physiological adaptations to enhance oxygen uptake and delivery to tissues which can be used to sustain metabolism. The strategies used by animals to adapt to high altitude depend on their morphology and phylogeny. For example, small mammals face the challenge of maintaining body heat in cold temperatures, due to their small volume to surface area ratio. As oxygen is used as a source of metabolic heat production, the hypobaric hypoxia at high altitudes is problematic.

There is also a general trend of smaller body sizes and lower species richness at high altitudes, likely due to lower oxygen partial pressures. [30] These factors may decrease productivity in high altitude habitats, meaning there will be less energy available for consumption, growth, and activity. [31]

However, some species, such as birds, thrive at high altitude. [32] Birds thrive because of physiological features that are advantageous for high-altitude flight.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mountain</span> Large natural elevation of the Earths surface

A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher than a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres (980 ft) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Troposphere</span> Lowest layer of Earths atmosphere

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth. It contains 80% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols, and is where most weather phenomena occur. From the planetary surface of the Earth, the average height of the troposphere is 18 km in the tropics; 17 km in the middle latitudes; and 6 km in the high latitudes of the polar regions in winter; thus the average height of the troposphere is 13 km.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratosphere</span> Layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere

The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is composed of stratified temperature zones, with the warmer layers of air located higher and the cooler layers lower. The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation by the ozone layer, where ozone is exothermically photolyzed into oxygen in a cyclical fashion. This temperature inversion is in contrast to the troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, and between the troposphere and stratosphere is the tropopause border that demarcates the beginning of the temperature inversion.

Atmospheric pressure, also known as air pressure or barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa), which is equivalent to 1,013.25 millibars, 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth; that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sea level</span> Geographical reference point from which various heights are measured

Mean sea level is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datum – a standardised geodetic datum – that is used, for example, as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation, or, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is instead a long-term average of tide gauge readings at a particular reference location.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmosphere of Earth</span>

The atmosphere of Earth is composed of a layer of gas mixture that surrounds the Earth's planetary surface, known collectively as air, with variable quantities of suspended aerosols and particulates, all retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere serves as a protective buffer between the Earth's surface and outer space, shields the surface from most meteoroids and ultraviolet solar radiation, keeps it warm and reduces diurnal temperature variation through heat retention, redistributes heat and moisture among different regions via air currents, and provides the chemical and climate conditions allowing life to exist and evolve on Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmosphere</span> Layer of gases surrounding an astronomical body held by gravity

An atmosphere is a layer of gasses that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosphere is the outer region of a star, which includes the layers above the opaque photosphere; stars of low temperature might have outer atmospheres containing compound molecules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lapse rate</span> Vertical rate of change of temperature in atmosphere

The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. Lapse rate arises from the word lapse. In dry air, the adiabatic lapse rate is 9.8 °C/km. The saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR), or moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALR), is the decrease in temperature of a parcel of water-saturated air that rises in the atmosphere. It varies with the temperature and pressure of the parcel and is often in the range 3.6 to 9.2 °C/km, as obtained from the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The environmental lapse rate is the decrease in temperature of air with altitude for a specific time and place. It can be highly variable between circumstances.

Given an atmospheric pressure measurement, the pressure altitude is the imputed altitude that the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) model predicts to have the same pressure as the observed value.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpine climate</span> Typical weather for regions above the tree line

Alpine climate is the typical climate for elevations above the tree line, where trees fail to grow due to cold. This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Standard Atmosphere</span> Atmospheric model

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a static atmospheric model of how the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes or elevations. It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature and pressure and consists of tables of values at various altitudes, plus some formulas by which those values were derived. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) publishes the ISA as an international standard, ISO 2533:1975. Other standards organizations, such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the United States Government, publish extensions or subsets of the same atmospheric model under their own standards-making authority.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venera 4</span> 1967 Soviet Venus probe

Venera 4, also designated 4V-1 No.310, was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus. The probe comprised a lander, designed to enter the Venusian atmosphere and parachute to the surface, and a carrier/flyby spacecraft, which carried the lander to Venus and served as a communications relay for it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elevation</span> Height of a geographic location above a fixed reference point

The elevation of a geographic location is its height above or below a fixed reference point, most commonly a reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface . The term elevation is mainly used when referring to points on the Earth's surface, while altitude or geopotential height is used for points above the surface, such as an aircraft in flight or a spacecraft in orbit, and depth is used for points below the surface.

In aviation, atmospheric sciences and broadcasting, a height above ground level is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. This is as opposed to height above mean sea level, height above ellipsoid, or height above average terrain. In other words, these expressions indicate where the "zero level" or "reference altitude" – the vertical datum – is located.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Convective instability</span> Ability of an air mass to resist vertical motion

In meteorology, convective instability or stability of an air mass refers to its ability to resist vertical motion. A stable atmosphere makes vertical movement difficult, and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear. In an unstable atmosphere, vertical air movements tend to become larger, resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity. Instability can lead to significant turbulence, extensive vertical clouds, and severe weather such as thunderstorms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of high altitude on humans</span> Environmental effects on physiology and mental health

The effects of high altitude on humans are mostly the consequences of reduced partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. The medical problems that are direct consequence of high altitude are caused by the low inspired partial pressure of oxygen, which is caused by the reduced atmospheric pressure, and the constant gas fraction of oxygen in atmospheric air over the range in which humans can survive. The other major effect of altitude is due to lower ambient temperature.

Altimeter setting is the value of the atmospheric pressure used to adjust the scale of a pressure altimeter so that it indicates the height of an aircraft above a known reference surface. This reference can be the mean sea level pressure (QNH), the pressure at a nearby surface airport (QFE), or the "standard pressure level" of 1,013.25 hectopascals which gives pressure altitude and is used to maintain one of the standard flight levels.

Vertical position or vertical location is a position along a vertical direction above or below a given vertical datum . Vertical distance or vertical separation is the distance between two vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing vertical position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc. Points lying on an equigeopotential surface are said to be on the same vertical level, as in a water level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glossary of meteorology</span> List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in meteorology

This glossary of meteorology is a list of terms and concepts relevant to meteorology and atmospheric science, their sub-disciplines, and related fields.

Height above mean sea level is a measure of a location's vertical distance in reference to a vertical datum based on a historic mean sea level. In geodesy, it is formalized as orthometric height. The zero level varies in different countries due to different reference points and historic measurement periods. Climate change and other forces can cause sea levels and elevations to vary over time.

References

  1. ↑ "The Stratosphere - overview". scied.ucar.edu. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research . Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  2. 1 2 Radiotelephony Manual. UK Civil Aviation Authority. 1 January 1995. ISBN   978-0-86039-601-7. CAP413.
  3. 1 2 3 Air Navigation. Department of the Air Force. 1 December 1989. AFM 51-40.
  4. ↑ McDowell, Jonathan (24 May 1998). "Jonathan's Space Report". Transatmospheric orbit (TAO): orbital flight with perigee less than 80 km but more than zero. Potentially used by aerobraking missions and transatmospheric vehicles, also in some temporary phases of orbital flight (e.g. STS pre OMS-2, some failures when no apogee restart)
  5. ↑ Definitions of geocentric orbits from the Goddard Space Flight Center Archived May 27, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ "Layers of the Atmosphere". JetStream, the National Weather Service Online Weather School. National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 19 December 2005. Retrieved 22 December 2005.
  7. ↑ Dr. S. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba (24 June 2004). "The 100 km Boundary for Astronautics". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011.
  8. ↑ Webster's New World Medical Dictionary. Wiley. 2008. ISBN   978-0-470-18928-3. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
  9. ↑ "An Altitude Tutorial". International Society for Mountain Medicine. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
  10. 1 2 3 Cymerman, A; Rock, PB (1994). "Medical Problems in High Mountain Environments. A Handbook for Medical Officers". USARIEM-TN94-2. U.S. Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  11. ↑ "Atmospheric pressure". NOVA Online Everest. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 23 January 2009.
  12. 1 2 Goody, Richard M.; Walker, James C.G. (1972). "Atmospheric Temperatures" (PDF). Atmospheres. Prentice-Hall. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 July 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  13. ↑ "Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate". tpub.com. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  14. ↑ Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet)) (Third ed.). International Civil Aviation Organization. 1993. ISBN   978-92-9194-004-2. Doc 7488-CD.
  15. ↑ "The stratosphere: overview". UCAR. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  16. ↑ "Non-Physician Altitude Tutorial". International Society for Mountain Medicine. Archived from the original on 23 December 2005. Retrieved 22 December 2005.
  17. ↑ West, JB (2002). "Highest permanent human habitation". High Altitude Medical Biology. 3 (4): 401–407. doi:10.1089/15270290260512882. PMID   12631426.
  18. ↑ Peacock, Andrew J (17 October 1998). "Oxygen at high altitude". British Medical Journal. 317 (7165): 1063–1066. doi:10.1136/bmj.317.7165.1063. PMC   1114067 . PMID   9774298.
  19. ↑ Young, Andrew J.; Reeves, John T. (2002). "21". Human Adaptation to High Terrestrial Altitude. In: Medical Aspects of Harsh Environments. Vol. 2. Borden Institute, Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 11 January 2009.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  20. ↑ Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004). "Altitude Acclimatization Guide". U.S. Army Research Inst. Of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report (USARIEM–TN–04–05). Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  21. ↑ "Everest:The Death Zone". Nova. PBS. 24 February 1998.
  22. ↑ West, John B. (January 2011). "Exciting Times in the Study of Permanent Residents of High Altitude". High Altitude Medicine & Biology. 12 (1): 1. doi:10.1089/ham.2011.12101. PMID   21452955.
  23. ↑ Voss, JD; Masuoka, P; Webber, BJ; Scher, AI; Atkinson, RL (2013). "Association of Elevation, Urbanization and Ambient Temperature with Obesity Prevalence in the United States". International Journal of Obesity. 37 (10): 1407–1412. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2013.5 . PMID   23357956.
  24. ↑ Ismailov, RM (July–September 2013). "Erythropoietin and epidemiology of Alzheimer disease". Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 27 (3): 204–6. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e31827b61b8. PMID   23314061. S2CID   32245379.
  25. 1 2 Brenner, Barry; Cheng, David; Clark, Sunday; Camargo, Carlos A. Jr (Spring 2011). "Positive Association between Altitude and Suicide in 2584 U.S. Counties". High Altitude Medicine & Biology. 12 (1): 31–5. doi:10.1089/ham.2010.1058. PMC   3114154 . PMID   21214344.
  26. ↑ Ward-Smith, AJ (1983). "The influence of aerodynamic and biomechanical factors on long jump performance". Journal of Biomechanics. 16 (8): 655–658. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(83)90116-1. PMID   6643537.
  27. ↑ "IAAF World Indoor Lists 2012" (PDF). IAAF Statistics Office. 9 March 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2013.
  28. ↑ Wehrlin, JP; Zuest, P; Hallén, J; Marti, B (June 2006). "Live high—train low for 24 days increases hemoglobin mass and red cell volume in elite endurance athletes". J. Appl. Physiol. 100 (6): 1938–45. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01284.2005. PMID   16497842.
  29. ↑ Gore, CJ; Clark, SA; Saunders, PU (September 2007). "Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 39 (9): 1600–9. doi: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49d3 . PMID   17805094.
  30. ↑ Jacobsen, Dean (24 September 2007). "Low oxygen pressure as a driving factor for the altitudinal decline in taxon richness of stream macroinvertebrates". Oecologia. 154 (4): 795–807. Bibcode:2008Oecol.154..795J. doi:10.1007/s00442-007-0877-x. PMID   17960424. S2CID   484645.
  31. ↑ Rasmussen, Joseph B.; Robinson, Michael D.; Hontela, Alice; Heath, Daniel D. (8 July 2011). "Metabolic traits of westslope cutthroat trout, introduced rainbow trout and their hybrids in an ecotonal hybrid zone along an elevation gradient". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 105: 56–72. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01768.x .
  32. ↑ McCracken, K. G.; Barger, CP; Bulgarella, M; Johnson, KP; et al. (October 2009). "Parallel evolution in the major haemoglobin genes of eight species of Andean waterfowl". Molecular Evolution. 18 (19): 3992–4005. Bibcode:2009MolEc..18.3992M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04352.x. PMID   19754505. S2CID   16820157.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.