Australian painted lady

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Australian painted lady
Australian painted lady feeding.jpg
Victoria, Australia
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Nymphalidae
Genus: Vanessa
Species:
V. kershawi
Binomial name
Vanessa kershawi
(McCoy, 1868)
Synonyms
  • Cynthia kershawiMcCoy, 1868
  • Vanessa cardui kershawi

The Australian painted lady (Vanessa kershawi) is a species of butterfly mostly confined to Australia, [1] although westerly winds have dispersed it to islands east of Australia, including New Zealand. [2] Debate surrounds the taxonomy of this species. Some believe that the Australian painted lady should be a subspecies of the painted lady ( Vanessa cardui ) due to the similarity in lifestyle and behaviour. Furthermore, the painted lady is found around the globe, but Australia is the only location in which it varies enough to be considered a separate species. [3]

Contents

However, due to the distinct genitalia of the males, and variation in colouration, many others consider the Australian painted lady to be a separate species. [3] [4] During spring, adult butterflies migrate south in large numbers from northern states of Queensland and New South Wales. [5] To find mates, male Australian painted ladies exhibit territorial behaviour, which involves a male perching on vegetation in a sunny spot on a hilltop, waiting for females to fly by. [6]

Despite urbanization and invasive plants altering its habitat, populations of Australian painted ladies have not been significantly impacted by these changes. [7]

Description

The Australian painted lady is remarkably similar to the painted lady ( Vanessa cardui ). It is differentiated by its smaller size, rarely exceeding 2 inches (5 cm) across its wings, and the blue colouration at the centre of the four eyespots on its hindwings. Its body is dark brown, almost black, all over, except the tips of the antenna which are white. The base of the wings are brown, which turns into a brick-red colouration, broken by bands of black. The tips of the forewing are black with four white dots running from the apex of the wing, and a white bar extending from the leading edge of the forewing. The hindwings have four round eyespots at their base, with a blue centre for at least three. The underwings are almost identical to the upperwings, except the base of the underwings is brick red rather than brown. The Australian painted lady's colouration allows it to blend in effectively with the ground. [8] Males and females look almost identical. [9] The ovum is translucent green and barrel-shaped with 13 to 15 vertical ribs. Right before hatching, the black head and grey-tinted body appear through the shell. [10] The larva is grey with pale yellow stripes along each side of its body, [11] yellow dots, [8] and has rows of branched spines covering its body. [9] Its head is typically brown or black, and the caterpillar grows to about 3 cm. The pupa is brown with darker markings, and four pairs of metallic silver or gold dots. [9]

Taxonomy

The Australian painted lady belongs to the family Nymphalidae and genus Vanessa, which compromises 22 species, which are strongly migratory. [12] The Australian painted lady is similar to the near-cosmopolitan painted lady (V. cardui), so it considered by some to be a subspecies of that. However, throughout its range, the painted lady does not exhibit much variation, but the male genitalia of the Australian painted lady is distinct from that of the painted lady, which suggests that it is a separate species. [3] The Australian species' four ventral eyespots are less clearly defined, and it always sports at least three (often four) conspicuous blue pupil spots on each dorsal hindwings' eyespots. V. cardui has either a few tiny pupil spots, or more often, none at all. [4]

The Australian painted and the painted lady have very similar lifestyles and behaviours, but the Australian painted lady lives in an arid and stressful environment. Australian painted lady colouration could be induced in painted lady butterflies by injecting the larvae with stress-inducing hormones and subjecting them to lowered temperatures. This demonstrates the phenotypic plasticity, or the tendency for visible traits to vary with changing environmental conditions, of the painted lady butterflies. It also suggests that the painted lady is the ancestral form, and environmental stress slowly drove speciation by adaptation into the Australian painted lady. In other words, the Australian painted lady most likely evolved from the painted lady due to the environmental conditions in Australia. [4]

Distribution

The Australian painted lady's distribution is restricted to Australia. The closely related V. cardui is found throughout the rest of the world, so the two species have an allopatric distribution. Within Australia, the Australian painted lady is commonly found throughout southern Australia, below the Tropic of Capricorn. It is uncommon to find this butterfly in Queensland, and it is completely absent from the far north of the country, in the tropical rainforests. Although it is most common in Australia, it has also become common throughout New Zealand following periodic migrations across the sea, from Australia. Since the butterflies do not reproduce or overwinter in New Zealand, they are only considered an established species in Australia. [1] Within its range, it is found in urban areas. [11]

Life history

The life cycle of the Australian painted lady lasts around 53 days in the summer. The females lay eggs in the centre of the leaf of food plants. The eggs are green and hatch in about three days. As a caterpillar, the Australian painted lady is only active at night, during which its main activity is feeding. During the day, it hides in a curled leaf or at the foot of a food plant. The pupa hangs vertically from the underside of the leaf of a food plant, and the duration of the pupal stage is about two weeks. [9]

Food sources

The Australian painted lady typically uses the native Australian everlastings and other daisies as a host and food plant. However, it also feeds on several introduced species, including capeweed ( Arctotheca calendula ), Scotch thistle ( Onopordum acanthium ), and lavender ( Lavandula angustifolia ). [11] The adults feed on the nectar of flowers. [9]

Host plants

Eggs have being recorded on Arctotis , Chrysanthemum (family Asteraceae) and Scotch thistle ( Cirsium vulgare ), but the resulting larvae do not survive past the first instar on these plants. Successful larvae have been observed on capeweed ( Cryptostemma ) and cudweed ( Gnaphalium ). The results are limited, usually causing malformations on everlasting daisies Helichrysum bracteatum and Helichrysum bellidioides . If leaves are not sufficient, then they eat flowers. Individuals reared on capeweed produce foul-smelling imagos. Other food plants have been recorded in Australia, but do not appear to be used in New Zealand. [10]

Behaviour

Mating system and territoriality

The Australian painted lady's mating system evolved due to a highly dispersed female population. Food and oviposition sites are abundant as females feed on a wide range of host plants; therefore, females do not cluster around hotspots of resources. This tendency makes it impossible for a male to defend the entirety of a female's range. Therefore, the best strategy for males is to defend a territory in which females are likely to travel. Females generally only visit male territories when they are receptive, with the purpose of copulating. However, when an abundant food source attracts a significant number of females, males no longer exhibit territoriality, and are seen searching for mates in areas where females are clustered. [6]

To defend a territory, the male exhibits perching behaviour starting in the mid- to late afternoon until dusk. Some individuals are able to reclaim the same territory several afternoons in a row. The longest period of time recorded in which one male defended the same territory was three days. The males choose sunny spots on hilltops, through which females are likely to travel. If no hilltops are available, the males wait in channels in the vegetation that would funnel wandering females towards them. The perching male sits and waits, scanning the sky for any moving object. Periodically, he executes a patrol flight to get a better picture of the surrounding area. When the male spots a moving flying object, he flies directly towards it. If it is a male, the resident male chases him off his territory. If it is a female, the male chases the female, more slowly and less aggressively than with an intruding male, away from the perch site. The pair lands and copulates, a process which can last more than an hour. [6]

Migration

Australia

Observations of the Australian painted lady migration date back to the 1960s. In 1963, a large migration took place in a south-easterly direction from late August to late September. It was characterized by the species becoming suddenly common in certain areas where it had previously been sparse. That year was noted to have been unusually wet in Australia. This could be a trait shared with V. cardui, which migrates in Europe during the wet season. [13] The Australian painted lady migrates south in the spring and summer, and north in the autumn and winter. [5]

Migrating butterflies often have smaller and lighter body sizes that allow them to fly longer distances. Additionally, these butterflies tend to have larger wing-to-body ratios. Temperatures and day length have been found to influence development. When larvae were exposed to short days and cool temperatures (20 °C), similar to conditions found in the spring, larval development was accelerated. This produced small adults with low body weights, ideal for migration. A similar phenomenon occurred when the larvae were exposed to longer days at warm temperatures (30 °C), conditions similar to those in the late summer. Seasonal changes could trigger the development of spring and fall body forms that are ideal for the migration patterns described above. [14]

New Zealand

During periods of large migration in Australia, and with the possible help of strong winds, the Australian painted lady migrates across the sea to New Zealand, [5] typically only appearing during October to November. [15] Multiple occurrences of this butterfly in New Zealand were reported in the 1960s. In the spring of 1968, they appeared on the western coast of New Zealand near the sea, and were unusually abundant. [2] [16] The species is unlikely to be established in New Zealand, as no instances of larvae or adults hibernating through the winter were found. Although some individuals reproduced and laid eggs, the larvae only developed to the first instar before development stopped. [2] The same phenomenon occurred in the late summer 1969, and coincided with a gale-force westerly wind. This evidence suggests that the butterflies observed in the spring of 1968 and the summer of 1969 were the result of a new migration from Australia, and not the offspring of a generation of previously migrated painted ladies. The migration of butterflies and moths from Australia is not uncommon in summers with strong winds. [17]

Response to a changing environment

Fragmented habitats due to urbanization, as well as disturbances to the environment from humans and introduced species, are harmful to most butterflies. Additionally, threats occur to local vegetation such as recreation, trampling of vegetation, fire regimes, and introduction of plant pathogens, which bring about changes to local plant community. Distribution of butterflies depends heavily on the site characteristics and the density of that species' host plants. Changing plant composition changes the distribution of most butterflies' range, isolating them to pockets where the vegetation is ideal. Because of the variety of host plants used by Australian painted ladies, it has not been significantly affected by these changes. [7] It has been found to use some species of carduine thistles, which are invasive to Australia, as host plants in New South Wales. Australian painted ladies use the plants as hosts during their larval stage, and as food sources. However, they inflict little damage to the plant. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lepidoptera</span> Order of insects including moths and butterflies

Lepidoptera is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described species of living organisms. It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world. The Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution. Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought, and is among the four most species-rich orders, along with the Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera.

<i>Cynthia</i> (butterfly) Subgenus of insects

Cynthia is a group of colourful butterfly species that used to be considered a subgenus of the genus Vanessa, in the family Nymphalidae. Before that, it was first described as a genus. Nowadays, this group is not considered a valid taxon anymore, because it is paraphyletic. The name CynthiaFabricius, 1807 is now a junior subjective synonym of VanessaFabricius, 1807.

<i>Vanessa atalanta</i> Species of butterfly

Vanessa atalanta, the red admiral or, previously, the red admirable, is a well-characterized, medium-sized butterfly with black wings, red bands, and white spots. It has a wingspan of about 2 inches (5 cm). It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. The red admiral is widely distributed across temperate regions of North Africa, the Americas, Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. It resides in warmer areas, but migrates north in spring and sometimes again in autumn. Typically found in moist woodlands, the red admiral caterpillar's primary host plant is the stinging nettle ; it can also be found on the false nettle. The adult butterfly drinks from flowering plants like Buddleia and overripe fruit. Red admirals are territorial; females will only mate with males that hold territory. Males with superior flight abilities are more likely to successfully court females. It is known as an unusually calm butterfly, often allowing observation at a very close distance before flying away, also landing on and using humans as perches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nymphalidae</span> Largest butterfly family

The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies, with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world. Belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea, they are usually medium-sized to large butterflies. Most species have a reduced pair of forelegs and many hold their colourful wings flat when resting. They are also called brush-footed butterflies or four-footed butterflies, because they are known to stand on only four legs while the other two are curled up; in some species, these forelegs have a brush-like set of hairs, which gives this family its other common name. Many species are brightly coloured and include popular species such as the emperors, monarch butterfly, admirals, tortoiseshells, and fritillaries. However, the under wings are, in contrast, often dull and in some species look remarkably like dead leaves, or are much paler, producing a cryptic effect that helps the butterflies blend into their surroundings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Small heath (butterfly)</span> Species of butterfly

The small heath is a butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae, classified within the subfamily Satyrinae. It is the smallest butterfly in this subfamily. The small heath is diurnal and flies with a noticeable fluttering flight pattern near the ground. It rests with closed wings when not in flight. It is widespread in colonies throughout the grasslands of Eurasia and north-western Africa, preferring drier habitats than other Coenonympha, such as salt marshes, alpine meadows, wetlands, and grasslands near water. However, habitat loss caused by human activities has led to a decline in populations in some locations.

<i>Vanessa cardui</i> Species of butterfly

Vanessa cardui is the most widespread of all butterfly species. It is commonly called the painted lady, or formerly in North America the cosmopolitan.

<i>Junonia coenia</i> Species of insect (butterfly)

Junonia coenia, known as the common buckeye or buckeye, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground. Its original ancestry has been traced to Africa, which then experiences divergence in Asia. The species Junonia grisea, the gray buckeye, is found west of the Rocky Mountains and was formerly a subspecies of Junonia coenia.

<i>Heliconius charithonia</i> Species of butterfly

Heliconius charithonia, the zebra longwing or zebra heliconian, is a species of butterfly belonging to the subfamily Heliconiinae of the family Nymphalidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1767 12th edition of Systema Naturae. The boldly striped black and white wing pattern is aposematic, warning off predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grayling (butterfly)</span> Species of butterfly

The grayling or rock grayling is a species in the brush-footed butterfly family Nymphalidae. Although found all over Europe, the grayling mostly inhabits coastal areas, with inland populations declining significantly in recent years. The grayling lives in dry and warm habitats with easy access to the sun, which helps them with body temperature regulation.

<i>Vanessa indica</i> Species of butterfly

Vanessa indica, called the Indian red admiral or the Asian admiral in the United States, is a butterfly found in the higher altitude regions of India, primarily the Himalayas and the Nilgiri Hills. It is also found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, China, Korea, SE Russia, Japan. It is a close relative of the painted lady.

<i>Vanessa</i> (butterfly) Genus of brush-footed butterflies in the family Nymphalidae with a near-global distribution

Vanessa is a genus of brush-footed butterflies in the tribe Nymphalini. It has a near-global distribution and includes conspicuous species such as the red admirals, the Kamehameha, and the painted ladies of the Cynthia group : Painted lady, American painted lady, West Coast lady, Australian painted lady, etc. For African admirals, see genus Antanartia. Recently, several members traditionally considered to be in the genus Antanartia have been determined to belong within the genus Vanessa.

<i>Hypolimnas bolina</i> Species of butterfly

Hypolimnas bolina, the great eggfly, common eggfly, varied eggfly or in New Zealand the blue moon butterfly is a species of nymphalid butterfly found from Madagascar to Asia and Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow argus</span> Butterfly in the family Nymphalidae

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<i>Anartia fatima</i> Species of butterfly

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">American lady</span> Species of butterfly

The American painted lady or American lady is a butterfly found throughout North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insect migration</span> Seasonal movement of insects

Insect migration is the seasonal movement of insects, particularly those by species of dragonflies, beetles, butterflies and moths. The distance can vary with species and in most cases, these movements involve large numbers of individuals. In some cases, the individuals that migrate in one direction may not return and the next generation may instead migrate in the opposite direction. This is a significant difference from bird migration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dryandra moth</span> Species of moth

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<i>Abantiades latipennis</i> Species of moth

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lepidoptera migration</span>

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References

  1. 1 2 Ecuador, G.I. (1992). "World distribution of the Vanessa cardui group (Nymphalidae)". Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society. 46 (3): 235–238. ISSN   0024-0966.
  2. 1 2 3 Gibbs, G.W. (1969). "A large migration of the Australian painted lady butterfly, Vanessa kershawi (McCoy), to New Zealand". New Zealand Entomology. 4 (2): 14–21. doi:10.1080/00779962.1969.9722898.
  3. 1 2 3 van Son, G. (1966). "The nomenclature of Vanessa kershawi (McCoy) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)". Australian Journal of Entomology. 5 (1): 66. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.1966.tb00682.x.
  4. 1 2 3 Otaki, J.M. (2007). "Stress-induced color-pattern modification and evolution of the painted lady butterflies Vanessa cardui and Vanessa kershawi". Zoological Science. 24 (8): 811–819. doi:10.2108/zsj.24.811. PMID   18217488. S2CID   25779380.
  5. 1 2 3 Dingle, Hugh; Zalucki, Myron P.; Rochester, Wayne A. (1999). "Season-specific directional movement in migratory Australian Butterflies". Australian Journal of Entomology. 38 (4): 323–329. doi:10.1046/j.1440-6055.1999.00117.x.
  6. 1 2 3 Alcock, John; Gwynne Daryl (1988). "The mating system of Vanessa kershawi: Males defend landmark territories as mate encounter sites". Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera. 26 (1–4): 116–124. doi: 10.5962/p.266708 . S2CID   127040681.
  7. 1 2 Williams, M.R. (2010). "Habitat resources, remnant vegetation condition and area determine distribution patterns and abundance of butterflies and day-flying moths in a fragmented urban landscape, south-west Western Australia". Journal of Insect Conservation. 15 (1–2): 37–54. doi:10.1007/s10841-010-9307-1. ISSN   1572-9753. S2CID   23442783.
  8. 1 2 Hawkeswood, T. J., & Dunn, K. L. Butterflies (Lepidoptera) recorded from the Sydney district at the commencement of the 20th Century by JJ Walker in two overlooked papers published in the Entomologists Monthly Magazine.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Herbison-Evans, Don. "Vanessa kershawi (McCoy, 1868)". Coffs Harbour Butterfly House. Retrieved November 12, 2013.
  10. 1 2 "Painted lady". 10 March 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  11. 1 2 3 "Animal Species: Australian Painted Lady". Australian Museum. Retrieved November 12, 2013.
  12. ↑ Wahlberg, N.; Rubinoff, D. (2011). "Vagility across Vanessa (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae): mobility in butterfly species does not inhibit the formation and persistence of isolated sister taxa". Systematic Entomology. 36 (2): 362–370. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3113.2010.00566.x . S2CID   85698796.
  13. ↑ Smithers, C.N.; Peters, J.V. (1966). "A migration of Vanessa kershawi (McCoy) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Australia". Australian Journal of Entomology. 5 (167–69): 67–69. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1966.tb00683.x .
  14. ↑ James, D. G. (1987). "Effects of temperature and photoperiod on the development of Vanessa kershawi McCoy and Junonia villida Godart (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)". Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. 26 (4): 289–292. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1987.tb01968.x .
  15. ↑ Early, John W.; Parrish, G. Richard; Ryan, Paddy A. (1995). "AN INVASION OF AUSTRALIAN BLUE MOON AND BLUE TIGER BUTTERFLIES (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE) IN NEW ZEALAND". Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum . 32: 45–53. ISSN   0067-0464.
  16. ↑ Fox, K.J. (1969). "Recent records of migrant Lepidoptera in Taranaki". New Zealand Entomologist. 4 (2): 6–10. doi:10.1080/00779962.1969.9722895.
  17. ↑ Fox, K.J. (1970). "More records of migrant Lepidoptera in Taranaki and the South Island". New Zealand Entomologist. 4 (4): 63–66. doi:10.1080/00779962.1970.9723076.
  18. ↑ Briese, D.T. (1989). "Natural enemies of carduine thistles in New South Wales". Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. 28 (2): 125–126. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.1989.tb01209.x .
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