The Bektashi Order (see Bektashi Order) is an IslamicSufi order that spread to Albania through Albanian Janissaries during the period of Ottoman control in Albania. The Bektashi make up 5% of the country's population. [1][2] In regards to ethics, the Bektashi adhere to the line "Be master of your hands, your tongue, and your loins" which essentially means do not steal, do not lie or speak idly, and do not commit adultery.[3]
In Albania, the Bektashi Order has taken on a patriotic and nationalistic character, and it has played a major role in the Albanian National Awakening. Bektashi leaders have historically been prominent members in Albanian movements for self-determination and national autonomy, which has contributed to its popularity amongst the Albanians, and for most of Albania's Bektashi community, their affiliation with the order is based on cultural heritage rather than actual religious belief.[4][5]
The acceptance of Bektashism amongst the Albanians was largely facilitated by the existent Bektashi syncretism between combined pre-Islamic and Shiite elements with Christian elements. These beliefs were quickly replaced by Albanian popular traditions once Bektashism had spread to Albania, and the Bektashi tekkes were primarily situated outside of Albanian towns, which allowed the order to maintain a rural character. Bektashism is perceived as the purest expression of Albanian religiosity, conserving Albanian cultural traditions to the point where it is considered the only truly 'national religion'.[5]
The Bektashi Order was mainly spread in Ottoman Albania in the 16th century through the Janissaries—members of a high-ranking military social class in the Ottoman Empire consisting of Balkan children who were raised by the Ottoman Turks as part of the Devshirme system—and is first associated with the figure, Sari Saltik (Sari Salltëk in Albanian). Many of the Janissaries were indeed Albanians. Legend holds that the tekke (teqe in Albanian) of Sersem Ali Baba in Tetova of today's North Macedonia was founded in the mid 16th century, which would make it the oldest teqe in Albanian-speaking territory.[4]:6 Bektashism spread to Albania slowly, especially considering the language barriers Persian and Turkish missionaries faced; Bektashi missionaries were sent to Albania from the Bektashi centre at Dimetoka, usually in groups of three. The first missionaries arrived during the 14th and 15th centuries.[6]
During Evliya Çelebi's travels in the southern Balkans in the second half of the 17th century, the presence of Bektashi teqes in Mitrovica and Kaçanik in Kosovo during 1660 was noted. Additionally, during Çelebi's tour of southern Albania in the summer of 1670, he also noted the presence of Bektashi teqes in Kaninë and Vlora. The construction of the Teqeja e Zallit (gravel teqe) in 1780 under Asim Baba laid the foundations for the growth of the Bektashi Order within Albania, and it was followed by the construction of more teqes throughout Albania—especially during the period between 1790 and 1825, in which the Bektashi Order maintained a strong presence within Albanian-speaking territories. The expansion of Bektashism in south Albania is linked to the rule of Ali Pasha of Ioannina, who was affiliated with the order and promoted its expansion. Ali Pasha used Bektashi dervishes as spies and diplomatic agents; this led to Mustafa Pasha Bushatli of the Bushati family (who was ruler of the Pashalik of Scutari) refusing to admit Bektashi dervishes to his provinces as he was concerned that they were spies for Ali. He drove the Bektashi Order out of north Albania for this very reason.[7][4]:6–7
Bektashism gradually became more deeply rooted in Albania during the 19th century. The Auspicious Event of 1826, which culminated in the destruction of the Janissary Corps by the Ottoman sultanMahmud II, also affected the Bektashi Order due to their strong affiliation with the Janissaries. As in Anatolia, many Bektashi buildings in Albania were destroyed or burnt down, including the teqes.[4]:7–8 However, the Bektashis of Albania were not as suppressed as those in Anatolia, as the formal abolition of the Janissary Corps and the Bektashi Order by the Ottoman Empire was only effective in Istanbul and the other provinces of the empire that were directly under the central Ottoman administration's authority.[5] The Bektashi Order in Albania had fully recovered by the second half of the 19th century. This would also be when Bektashism in Albania adopted Albanian nationalism as a major part of its doctrine, and when the religion would see increased popularity amongst Albanians.[4]:7–8 During the Albanian National Awakening, the majority of Albanian Muslims constantly expressed their firm desire to sever their links with the Ottoman Empire, and the heterodoxy and tendency to assimilate external elements enabled Bektashism to fully integrate nationalism into its doctrine. This made the Bektashi Order extraordinarily popular in Albania.[5]
Bektashis contributed greatly to Albanian patriotic efforts during this time and were crucial in educating the mostly illiterate Albanian population in the Albanian language. Albanians were attracted to Bektashism for certain values—more particularly, its traditional tolerance and regard for other religions, and its tolerance and open-mindedness towards other practices and beliefs. Additionally, in contrast to Sunni Islam, which was more favourable towards the Ottoman Turks and promoted the Arabic script, Bektashism was more sympathetic for local concerns and favoured the use of a Latin script for the Albanian language. At the beginning of the 20th century, about 15% of Albania's population was Bektashi, and Bektashi teqes served as underground Albanian-language schools and Albanian-language book distributors. However, contrary to what many Bektashi intellectuals had hoped for, the sect did not become the Albanian national religion, especially due to the fact that the Order was disproportionately concentrated in the south of Albania. Around 70% of all Bektashi teqes were found south of Berat and only about 3% in the north.[4]:7–8
Post-independence
Road from the centre of Vlora to the port. On the hill are the ruins of the Bektashi teqe of Kuz Baba. 1913-1914
After the Albanian declaration of independence in 1912, the political instability that followed was harmful to the Albanian Bektashis. The teqes of Albania suffered significant damage and destruction throughout the Balkan Wars and the first two years of World War I. A period of destruction came with the Muslim Uprising of Albania, a Sunni Muslim revolt that was popular in central Albania and demanded that control of Albania was returned to the Ottomans, that the Albanian flag was replaced by the Ottoman one, and the use of Ottoman Turkish as the national language (or at least using Arabic script for Albanian) amongst several other demands. The rebels, led by the fanatic Haxhi Qamili, burnt down many Bektashi teqes from Martanesh in Bulqizë to as far south as Berat due to the strong links between Bektashism and Albanian nationalism (including the efforts Albanian Bektashis made towards the progression of Albanian education and Albanian independence) as well as the religious differences between the Shi'ite-oriented Bektashis and the Sunni Muslim rebels.[4]:8–9
During the conflict between Albanians and Greeks in southern Albania during 1914–1915, where Greek forces took advantage of the political instability of Albania and attempted to annex as much Albanian territory into Greece as possible or succeed in creating the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus, at least 145 Albanian villages in southern Albania were looted and destroyed. Accompanying this was the destruction of 48 teqes at the hands of the Greek forces. In total, 80 per cent of the teqes in Albania were either extremely damaged or destroyed entirely during 1914–1915. The Bektashi Order of Albania has not fully recovered since this loss. With the conclusion of the First World War, stability returned to the surviving Albanian Bektashi community, and many teqes were rebuilt in the early 1920s.[4]:9
By 1920, the Bektashi community in Albania had gained enough recognition to have one a representative - Aqif Pasha Biçaku - on the High Regency Council which governed Albania during the absence of Prince Wied; this council consisted of 4 representatives for each religious community.[5] The Bektashi community of Albania stressed its separation from the Turkish Bektashi community during the First National Congress of the Bektashi (held at the teqe of Prishta in Skrapar and headed by Baba Ahmet Turani), where they stressed that they were the first religious community of Albania to be free of foreign control. At a 1923 Muslim conference held in Tirana, disputes arose between the Bektashis and the Sunnis, ultimately culminating in the Bektashi representatives leaving the meeting and breaking relations with the Grand Mufti in Istanbul.[4]:10
The Second National Congress of the Bektashi was held on 8–9 July 1924, in Gjirokastër under Baba Ahmet Turani. The Turkish Bektashi community contemplated relocating their headquarters in Albania due to the political climate of Turkey, and thereby resolved that religious ceremonies could be performed in the Albanian language; all the dervish orders in Turkey were banned in 1925 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Third National Congress of the Bektashi was held in the teqe of Turan near Korça on 23 September 1929, this time under Baba Zylfo of Melçan, and it turned out to be the most crucial early Bektashi congress. The order declared itself to be a religious community of its own - autonomous from mainstream Islam - and they initiated the Kryegjysh system, with their Kryegjyshata in Tirana as their headquarters.[4]:11
On the initiative of Salih Nijazi, an Albanian from the Kolonja region who was the Kryegjysh (dedebaba) of the Bektashi Order, the seat of the Order was transferred from Hacıbektaş in Anatolia to the new headquarters in the Albanian capital of Tirana.[5] This was done in response to the Turkish ban on dervish orders and the closing of all the teqes in Anatolia. Estimations on the number of teqes in Albania at the time range from 43 to 65 in 1928 and 52 in 1933, whilst there were about a dozen teqes in Kosovo and several in the Albanian-speaking regions of North Macedonia. Until 1937, the Kryegjysh appointment was approved by King Zog.[4]:11–12 It is claimed by the Bektashis that Salih Nijazi was murdered in 1941 by the Italian fascist regime that was occupying Albania at the time, and that the cause of this murder was Nijazi's refusal to collaborate with the occupying forces.[5]
Communist period
After World War II, the Albanian Partisans seized control of the nation and established a Stalinist regime. The Fourth National Congress of the Bektashi was held in Tirana on 5 May 1945, leading to a change of leadership. Xhafer Sadik was made Kryegjysh, and Baba Faja Martaneshi (a Communist collaborator) was made secretary general, but the death of Sadiku on 2 August 1945 led to an early replacement by Abaz Hilmi. On 19 March 1947, Abaz Hilmi Dede shot and killed both Baba Faja Martaneshi and Baba Fejzo Dervishi prior to committing suicide after a heated argument over religious matters occurred. It is believed that Martaneshi and Dervishi, who were loyal towards the Communist regime, demanded the order to collaborate more closely with the Communists and accused Hilmi of being a reactionary.[5][4]:12
The Communist dictatorship established complete control over the Bektashi Order through purges and by frightening the babas into submission or silence; this was soon followed with the death of many of the Bektashi leaders, such as Baba Qamil Gllava of Tepelena (executed in Gjirokastra, 1946), Baba Ali Myrteza of Kruja (tortured and then thrown out of a prison window), Baba Ali Tomorri and Baba Shefket Koshtani of Tepelena (executed). Ahmet Myftar, a loyal follower of Communist doctrines, assumed the Kryegjyshata on 8 June 1947, and was a puppet of the Communist regime.[5][4]:12
The Fifth National Congress of the Bektashi was held in Tirana on 16 April 1950, and in 1954, there were still between 43 and 68 teqes in the country. In 1967, the new Albanian Constitution banned religion, which resulted in a militant political campaign against religious institutions and groups; young people were encouraged to attack mosques, teqes and churches, and to denounce members of the clergy to communist authorities, resulting in the disbandment of the Bektashi community. Most teqes and tyrbes - along with churches and mosques - were razed to the ground, and their leaders were sent into internal exile or imprisoned. Of the 53 Bektashi teqes that existed prior to this, only 6 remained. The Bektashi community in Albania was eradicated, but two teqes continued to function outside of Albania - one in Gjakova, Kosovo, under Baba Qazim Bakalli, and one in Taylor, Detroit in Michigan, United States, founded by Baba Rexheb in 1954. The teqe of Gjakova was later burnt down by Serbian forces in 1999 along with the rest of the old town of Gjakova during the Kosovo War. In 1993, after the fall of Communism in Albania, one dervish and 5 babas were all that remained in the country, with only 6 remaining teqes.[5][4]:13
Present
A provisional committee for the revival of the Bektashi Order was founded in Tirana on 27 January 1991. The new community, under Baba Reshat Bardhi, has since worked to revive the Order, and the Kryegjyshata of Tirana was reopened on 22 March 1991, during Novruz. This reopening was attended by other religious figures in Albania, such as Mother Teresa, and a Sixth National Congress of the Bektashi occurred on 19–20 July 1993. A Seventh National Congress of the Bektashi occurred on the 23–24 September 2000, and an Eight on 21 September 2005. A Ninth congress was held on 6 July 2009. Rebuilding was difficult for the Bektashi, who lacked a foreign patron to provide funding for their revival, with the exception of modest donations from the American-Albanian Bektashi community. However, the Bektashi Order managed to legally have much of their extensive previous property returned, and through methods such as leasing out their pasture lands, the Bektashi community lives in good part.[4]:13–14
Bektashism and Albanian nationalism
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Albanian Bektashism incorporated Albanian nationalism as a central element of its doctrine. After the Auspicious Event and the persecution of the Bektashi Order throughout the Ottoman Empire, Bektashism emerged amongst Albanians with nationalism and anti-Ottoman sentiment - the order's historical conflict with the Ottoman authorities contributed to their nationalist, anti-Turk stance, which went hand-in-hand with the liberation heterodoxy that predominated in Albanian Bektashi philosophy. It is this same heterodoxy and ability to assimilate external influences that enabled the order to fully integrate Albanian nationalist doctrine within its system, which made it extremely popular in Albania.[5][8][4]
Nationalist sentiment amongst Albanian Bektashis began to blossom within the second half of the 19th century in particular - Bektashi clergy, stemming from both peasantry and wealthier social classes, were very active in Albanian national movements. They would spread nationalist ideas and hold national and local meetings for like-minded patriotic groups and individuals within their teqes. The influence of the Bektashi in this regard also extended to the local Albanian Orthodox population. In particular, the Bektashi clergy were crucial to the teaching of the Albanian language and the distribution of Albanian books and made enormous progress in this aspect. Bektashi teqes became a network of underground Albanian-language schools that would distribute books, spellers and newspapers to the local Albanian population during a time where education in the Albanian language was discouraged/minimised or outright banned by the Ottoman authorities. Teqes outside of Albania, such as the teqe in Cairo, supported these efforts by sending Albanian dervishes to distribute Albanian books throughout Albanian-inhabited territories.[8][4]
Naim Frashëri, who was one of the most prominent Albanian poets, writers and activists of the Rilindja period, was strongly affiliated with the Albanian Bektashis. In his text - Fletore e bektashinjët (The Bektashi Notebook; 1896) - Frashëri explained and to an extent founded the novel theological and practical principles of Bektashism and the organisational rules surrounding its functioning. Frashëri's text is devoid of religious fanaticism, mystification and dogmatism, and it insists on ethics and moral principles. Under Frashëri's intellectual influence, the development of Albanian Bektashism showed that esoteric knowledge was not exclusive to a particular genealogical lineage more so than any other Sufi order, but instead acquired via spiritual progression that was closely related to the expression of Albanian national sentiments and the implementation of patriotism as the highest of virtues.[5]
The Atës, or Babas, were significant contributors to the Albanian National Awakening, culminating in some of them being imprisoned or suffering more severe punishments for their efforts. Although they were part of the Muslim community and had contributed to the advancement of Albanian literature in Arabic script, the Albanian Bektashis supported and promoted the use of the Latin script for the Albanian alphabet. Efforts by the Young Turks to send imams and dervishes to promote the use of the Arabic script by winning over the Bektashi clergy were thwarted and ignored. The Bektashi clergy created and operated several 'clubs' and patriotic societies in 20th century Albania, and their primary goal was to promote teaching in the Albanian language and to distribute Albanian literature. In southern Albania, the Bektashi strongly supported armed çeta groups and their anti-Ottoman activities; the Bektashi teqes were usually in isolated areas out of the reach of Turkish authorities, hence they could support these groups and practically act as the headquarters of Albanian nationalist movements. Teqes would also be the point of communication between çetas and the supporting civilian population. Many instances exist where an Atë and his teqe have furthered the Albanian national cause by spreading awareness about it, educating Albanian populations or supporting and harbouring çeta groups.[8][4]
Leadership
The Centre of the Bektashi Order in Tirana, AlbaniaTeqja e Madhe, Gjakova
The Gjyshata of Berat (headquarters: tekke of Prisht): the regions of Berat, Skrapar and Përmet.
The Albanian Bektashi Order in Kosovo is centred around Gjakova and is currently under the leadership of Baba Mumin Lama. They recognise the Albanian leadership in Tirana as the heads of their order.[10][4]:244
The Bektashi Order in Albania has a hierarchal structure:[4]:3[11]
The ashik (from Turkish aşık, literally 'lover') is a Bektashi follower who has not yet been initiated.
The muhib (meaning 'one who loves, sympathiser') is an initiate of the Bektashi community - one who has been initiated through a ritual purification or profession of faith during a ceremony at a teqe.
The varfa (from Albanian i varfur, meaning 'poor'), or poor dervishes, are the Bektashi equivalent of Christian monks. An initiate may become a varfa after a trial period of 1001 days and receives a white headdress called the taxh, usually living permanently at a teqe. Varfa cannot be removed from their oath as a poor dervish. Varfa must be wise, gentle, modest, submissive and a servant of mankind. Should someone curse or strike the varfa, the varfa must not react. If a varfa was married prior to becoming a poor dervish, he may stay at home with his family. Every varfa has a job or carries out a service of his own.
Varfa can also vow never to marry, in which case they become a Myxher (from Turkish mücerred, meaning 'person tried by experience, pure, unmarried'), or celibate dervishes. Myxher wear a ring in their right ear.
The Atë (literally meaning 'father' in Albanian) - or baba - is a spiritual leader, the equivalent of a sheikh in other Dervish orders. Each teqe is normally headed by an Atë. The Atë is the chief of the dervishes, and is also known as the udhërrëfenjës (meaning 'guide' in Albanian).
The Gjysh (literally meaning 'grandfather' in Albanian), is the superior of the babas - when there are several Atë's, they choose one among them to serve as the Gjysh. The Gjysh has passed through the final ceremony, and is responsible for the teqe's of a certain region. For a poor dervish to become an Atë, he must be initiated by the Gjysh.
The Kryegjysh, or Stërgjysh (literally meaning 'Head-Grandfather' and 'Great-Grandfather' respectively), known in Turkish as dede baba, is the leader of the Bektashi Order and is chosen amongst the Gjyshes by the Gjyshes themselves.
Bektashism, officially the Order of Bektashi dervishes, is an Islamic Sufi mystic order that originated in 13th-century Anatolia and became widespread in the Ottoman Empire. It is named after the saint Haji Bektash Veli. The Bektashian community is currently led by Baba Mondi, their eighth Bektashi Dedebaba and headquartered in Tirana, Albania. Collectively, adherents of Bektashism are called Bektashians or simply Bektashis.
Haji Bektash Veli was an Islamic scholar, mystic, saint, sayyid, and philosopher from Khorasan who lived and taught in Anatolia. His original name was Sayyid Muhammad ibn Sayyid Ibrāhim Ātā. He is also referred to as the "Sultan of Hearts" and the "Dervish of the Dervishes".
Rexheb Beqiri, better known by the religious name Baba Rexheb, was an Albanian Islamic scholar and Sufi. He was the founder and the head of the Bektashi Sufi lodge (tekke) located in Taylor, Michigan, United States.
Tomorr is a mountain chain in the region of Berat and Skrapar, in Albania. It reaches an elevation of 2,416 metres (7,927 ft) above sea level at the Çuka e Partizanit, which is the highest peak in central Albania.
The Zall Tekke or Asim Baba Tekke is a Bektashi teqe in Gjirokastër, Albania. It is a Cultural Monument of Albania.
The Tekke of Frashër or Nasibî Tâhir Baba Tekke is a Bektashi shrine and Albanian Bektashi tekke founded in 1781 and registered Cultural Monument of Albania, located in Frashër, Gjirokastër County in southern Albania. The tekke was crucial to the Albanian National Awakening, particularly in the nationalist movements of the late 19th century, and it was one of the wealthiest and revered tekkes in Albania.
Reshat Bardhi was an Albanian religious leader who served as the 7th kryegjysh or Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order from 1991 to 2011.
Haxhi Dede Edmond Brahimaj, commonly known as Baba Mondi, is an Albanian religious leader and the eighth Albanian Bektashi Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order. He is the leader of the Bektashi Muslims. If the planned nation of the Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order is approved, Baba Mondi will serve as the head of the country in his role as spiritual leader.
Zenel Bastari or Zenel Hyka was an Albanian poet of the Bejtexhinj literary movement. A native of Tirana, he lived and worked from the end of 18th century until mid 19th century. Together with Hasan Zyko Kamberi and Nezim Frakulla he was part of the Bejtexhinj who focused on social and political criticism rather than Islamic moral and life. A precursor of the bourgeois critical-realism, he is also considered one of the first anti-feudal writers in Albania.
Salih Nijazi was Dedebaba of the Bektashians from 1930 until his death in 1941. He was the last Dedebaba of Turkey and the first Dedebaba of Albania.
Ali Riza (1882–1944) was the 2nd Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order.
Kamber Ali (1869–1950) was the 3rd Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order. He served as Dedebaba for only several months in 1944, and was arrested by the Communists in December 1944 since he had fought for the Balli Kombëtar. He died in prison in Tirana in 1950.
Xhafer Sadik (1874–1945) was the 4th Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order. He served as Dedebaba for only 3 months during the summer of 1945.
Abaz Hilmi was the 5th Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order.
Ahmet Myftar (1916–1980) was the 6th Dedebaba of the Bektashi Order in Islamic Sufi mysticism. He was the final dedebaba to have served during the People's Socialist Republic of Albania.
The World Headquarters of the Bektashi or Bektashi World Center is the international headquarters of the Bektashi Order, a Sufi order. It is located on Dhimitër Kamarda Street at the eastern edge of Tirana, the capital of Albania. It serves as the centre of the Albanian Bektashi Order. The site is proposed to form the territory of the Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order.
The Abbas ibn Ali Türbe is a Bektashi türbe is a Bektashi shrine traditionally considered to be the resting place of Abbas ibn Ali (647–680), a son of Ali. It is situated on the southern peak of Mount Tomorr in Berat, south-central Albania. A large annual pilgrimage is currently held every year from 20-25 August.
The World Bektashi Congress, formerly called the National Congress of the Bektashi before the 1990s, is a conference during which leading members of the Bektashi Order make important decisions. It has been held in Albania since 1921.
The Teqe of Baba Isuf or Teqe of Bllaca is a Bektashi tekke in the village of Bllacë, Dibër. It was founded in the late nineteenth century by Baba Isuf. The tekke has historically been an important centre of learning, known for its patriotic contributions in educating people in the Albanian language during late 19th and early 20th centuries. The tekke's feast day is the 10th of June.
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