Cladosporium sphaerospermum

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Cladosporium sphaerospermum
Cladosporium sphaerospermum colony.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Dothideomycetes
Order: Capnodiales
Family: Davidiellaceae
Genus: Cladosporium
Species:
C. sphaerospermum
Binomial name
Cladosporium sphaerospermum
Penz. (1882)

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is a radiotrophic fungus [1] [2] belonging to the genus Cladosporium and was described in 1886 by Albert Julius Otto Penzig from the decaying leaves and branches of Citrus . [3] It is a dematiaceous (darkly-pigmented) fungus characterized by slow growth and largely asexual reproduction. Cladosporium sphaerospermum consists of a complex of poorly morphologically differentiated, "cryptic" species that share many physiological and ecological attributes. [4] In older literature, all of these sibling species were classified as C. sphaerospermum despite their unique nature. Accordingly, there is confusion in older literature reports on the physiological and habitat regularities of C. sphaerospermum in the strict sense. This fungus is most phylogenetically similar to C. fusiforme . [5] According to modern phylogenetic analyses, the previously synonymized species, Cladosporium langeroni, is a distinct species. [5]

Growth and morphology

The hyphae of Cladosporium sphaerospermum are thick walled, septate, and olivaceous-brown in colour. [5] Colonies of the fungus are velvety in texture and flattened (i.e., rarely raised, fluffy, or radially furrowed). C. sphaerospermum conidiophores are branched, septate, and dark, up to 150–300 μm long and 3.5–4.0 μm wide. [5] The structure of the conidiophores are tree-like, a prominent feature of the genus Cladosporium. Unlike other related species, the conidiophores of this species lack swollen nodes at the branching points. [5] Conidia of this species are characteristically globose to ellipsoid with a diameter of 3.4–4.0 μm. [5] The conidia are formed in branching chains in which the youngest conidium is situated at the top. [3] Cladosporium sphaerospermum also produces ramoconidia 6–14 × 3.5–4.0 μm in length [3] and this feature can be used as a method of distinguishing between similar species. [5] [6] Ramoconidia are conidia found at the branching points joining multiple spore chains and can be recognized by one end having a single attachment scar and the other end having two or more attachment scars. Cladosporium sphaerospermum is also a psychrophilic fungus, known to grow at temperatures as low as −5 °C (23 °F) [7] with an upper limit of 35 °C (95 °F) and no growth at 37 °C (99 °F). [5] The optimal temperature this fungus grows under is 25 °C (77 °F). [5] This fungus is xerotolerant as it can thrive in environments with low water activity caused by high salinity (halotolerant) or other dissolved solutes. [5] This fungus has been observed to grow in as low as 0.815 aw in vitro. [7]

Physiology

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is considered a saprotroph and is a secondary invader of dead or dying plant tissue. [7] Energy is provided through the conversion of starch, cellulose, and sucrose to alcohol and carbon dioxide. [8] However, it has been shown in a laboratory environment that these fungi are able to successfully grow with toluene as the sole source of carbon. [9] This trait may have arisen because these fungi and many others from the genus Cladosporium are secondary colonizers and frequently dwell in environments poor in nutrients. [5] Cladosporium sphaerospermum is able to enhance polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon biodegradation in soils due to reactive oxygen species produced as secondary metabolites, such as H2O2. [10] This species is a prolific producer of the pigmented secondary metabolite, melanin, thought to serve as a protective mechanism against UV irradiation, enzymatic lysis, oxidant attack, and fungal infections from other competing fungi. [11] A method that can be used to determine the presence of this fungus on a background of other organic material is through the KOH test which stains the fungus. The addition of lactophenol blue with this test turns the chitin in the cell wall blue but leaves the budding conidia and globular conidiophores with their characteristic brown colouring. [12] The first draft sequence of the C. sphaerospermum genome was created in 2012. [11] Genes were identified that are involved in the dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN)-melanin biosynthesis pathway which confirms the etiology of melanin in this species. Genes associated with the production of allergens were also identified as well as those conferring resistance to various antifungal drugs. [11]

Habitat and ecology

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is a cosmopolitan fungus that inhabits city buildings and the environment and because of its airborne nature it can move rapidly between locations, though the extent of this is lacking in research. [5] It is found in hypersaline environments in Mediterranean and tropical climates, as well as soil and plant environments in temperate climates. [5] The indoor presence of this fungus can signify there is a condensation problem within the building such as on bathroom walls [7] and in kitchens. [13] Cladosporium sphaerospermum is also been shown to inhabit paint films on walls and other surfaces as well as old paintings. [4] [14] This fungus is also able to grow on gypsum-based material with and without paint and wallpaper. [4] Plant materials that are affected include citrus leaves [7] on various other decaying plant leaves, [15] on the stems of herbaceous and woody plants, [15] on fruits and vegetables. [13] The fungus has also been reported from wheat-based bakery items. [13]

Human health

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is mainly known as a spoilage agent of harvested fruits and vegetables. [7] There are very few reports implicating this species as a disease agent in humans. [5] It is known as an allergen and mainly causes problems in patients with respiratory tract diseases as well as subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and intrabronchial lesions in immunocompetent individuals caused by many dematiaceous fungi. [11] It has been reported rarely from skin, eye, sinus, and brain infections. [16] There has been one reported case in which a female patient developed swelling on the dorsum of her hand which, after testing with Grocott's methenamine silver stain and Lactophenol cotton blue, confirmed the presence of dematiaceous hyphae compatible with C. sphaerospermum. [16] Another case in which identified was where it caused cerebral phaeohyphomycosis but this was treated successfully and the symptoms were abated. [17] Cladosporium sphaerospermum produces allergenic compounds but is not known to produce significant mycotoxins. [11]

Protection against radiation

An experiment has been made at the International Space Station in December 2018 and January 2019 to test whether radiotrophic fungi could be used as protection against radiation, especially in space. The experiment used Cladosporium sphaerospermum. Results were prepublished for peer-review in July 2020. [18]

Related Research Articles

<i>Septoria</i> Genus of fungi

Septoria are ascomycete pycnidia-producing fungi that cause numerous leaf spot diseases on field crops, forages and many vegetables including tomatoes which are known to contract Septoria musiva from nearby cottonwood trees, and is responsible for yield losses. The genus is widespread, and estimated to contain 1072 species. Pycnidia produce needle-like pycnidiospores.

<i>Cochliobolus lunatus</i> Fungal plant pathogen

Cochliobolus lunatus is a fungal plant pathogen that can cause disease in humans and other animals. The anamorph of this fungus is known as Curvularia lunata, while C. lunatus denotes the teleomorph or sexual stage. They are, however, the same biological entity. C. lunatus is the most commonly reported species in clinical cases of reported Cochliobolus infection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiotrophic fungus</span> Fungus capable of radiosynthesis

Radiotrophic fungi are fungi that can perform the hypothetical biological process called radiosynthesis, which means using ionizing radiation as an energy source to drive metabolism. It has been claimed that radiotrophic fungi have been found in extreme environments such as in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.

<i>Ulocladium</i> Genus of fungi

Ulocladium is a genus of fungi. Species of this genus contain both plant pathogens and food spoilage agents. Other species contain enzymes that are biological control agents. Some members of the genus can invade homes and are a sign of moisture because the mold requires water to thrive. They can cause plant diseases or hay fever and more serious infections in immuno-suppressed individuals.

Cladosporium dominicanum is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been found in plant material.

Cladosporium psychrotolerans is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It grows well at 4 °C but not at 30 °C, and has ornamented, globoid conidia with long digitate projections.

Cladosporium velox is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been found in plant material.

Cladosporium spinulosum is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has spherical, ornamented conidia with long digitate (finger-like) projections.

Cladosporium halotolerans is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been isolated from bathrooms and in a dolphin.

Cladosporium fusiforme is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has ovoid to ellipsoid conidia. It has also been found in animal feed.

Cladosporium salinae is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has ovoid to ellipsoid conidia. It has also been found in animal feed.

Black yeasts, sometimes also black fungi, dematiaceous fungi, microcolonial fungi or meristematic fungi is a diverse group of slow-growing microfungi which reproduce mostly asexually. Only few genera reproduce by budding cells, while in others hyphal or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant. Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular a dark colouration (melanisation) of their cell wall. Morphological plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses. The term "polyextremotolerance" has been introduced to describe this phenotype, an example of which is the species Aureobasidium pullulans. Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in the cell wall confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.

<i>Cladophialophora bantiana</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora bantiana is a melanin producing mold known to cause brain abscesses in humans. It is one of the most common causes of systemic phaeohyphomycosis in mammals. Cladophialophora bantiana is a member of the ascomycota and has been isolated from soil samples from around the world.

<i>Cladosporium cladosporioides</i> Species of fungus

Cladosporium cladosporioides is a darkly pigmented mold that occurs world-wide on a wide range of materials both outdoors and indoors. It is one of the most common fungi in outdoor air where its spores are important in seasonal allergic disease. While this species rarely causes invasive disease in animals, it is an important agent of plant disease, attacking both the leaves and fruits of many plants. This species produces asexual spores in delicate, branched chains that break apart readily and drift in the air. It is able to grow under low water conditions and at very low temperatures.

<i>Zasmidium cellare</i> Species of fungus

Zasmidium cellare, also known as cellar mold, is a species of fungus that exists in dark, ethanol-rich environments and is brown to black in colour. This species primarily exists in wine and brandy cellars in central and southern Europe, but can be found in surrounding regions and is thought to be helpful in the wine making process by some and a hygienic issue by others. Not much is known about Z. cellare's sexual biology and is thought to be beneficial to the cleanliness of cellar air due to its ability to consume musty odours.

<i>Rhinocladiella mackenziei</i> Species of fungus

Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

Cladosporium oxysporum is an airborne fungus that is commonly found outdoors and is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical region, it is mostly located In Asia and Africa. It spreads through airborne spores and is often extremely abundant in outdoor air during the spring and summer seasons. It mainly feeds on decomposing organic matter in warmer climates, but can also be parasitic and feed on living plants. The airborne spores can occasionally cause cutaneous infections in humans, and the high prevalence of C. oxysporum in outdoor air during warm seasons contributes to its importance as an etiological agent of allergic disease and possibly human cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in tropical regions.

Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.

<i>Xenodevriesia</i> Species of ascomycete fungus

Xenodevriesia strelitziicola is a pathogenic ascomycete fungus in the class Dothideomycetes that infects the South African plant Strelitzia. It is the only species of the monotypic genus Xenodevriesia and family Xenodevriesiaceae.

Heterosporium luci is a species of fungus in the family Cladosporiaceae. The species is a fungal plant pathogen that has been recorded from the Central African Republic, the Ivory Coast, and Senegal.

References

  1. ↑ Dadachova, Ekaterina; Bryan, Ruth A.; Huang, Xianchun; Moadel, Tiffany; Schweitzer, Andrew D.; Aisen, Philip; Nosanchuk, Joshua D.; Casadevall, Arturo (2007-05-23). "Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melanin and Enhances the Growth of Melanized Fungi". PLOS ONE. 2 (5): e457. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..457D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000457 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   1866175 . PMID   17520016.
  2. ↑ Dadachova, Ekaterina; Casadevall, Arturo (2008). "Ionizing radiation: how fungi cope, adapt, and exploit with the help of melanin". Current Opinion in Microbiology . 11 (6). Elsevier: 525–531. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2008.09.013. ISSN   1369-5274. PMC   2677413 . PMID   18848901. S2CID   6003062.
  3. 1 2 3 Bensch, K.; Braun, U.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Crous, P.W. (June 2012). "The genus Cladosporium". Studies in Mycology. 72 (1): 1–401. doi:10.3114/sim0003. PMC   3390897 . PMID   22815589.
  4. 1 2 3 Samson, edited by Olaf C.G. Adan, Robert A. (2011). Fundamentals of mold growth in indoor environments and strategies for healthy living. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers. ISBN   978-90-8686-135-4.{{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Zalar, P.; de Hoog, G.S.; Schroers, H.-J.; Crous, P.W.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2007). "Phylogeny and ecology of the ubiquitous saprobe Cladosporium sphaerospermum, with descriptions of seven new species from hypersaline environments". Studies in Mycology. 58: 157–183. doi:10.3114/sim.2007.58.06. PMC   2104741 . PMID   18490999.
  6. ↑ Bensch, K.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Dijksterhuis, J.; Starink-Willemse, M.; Andersen, B.; Summerell, B.A.; Shin, H.-D.; Dugan, F.M.; Schroers, H.-J.; Braun, U.; Crous, P.W. (2010). "Species and ecological diversity within the Cladosporium cladosporioides complex (Davidiellaceae, Capnodiales)". Studies in Mycology. 67: 1–94. doi:10.3114/sim.2010.67.01. PMC   2945380 . PMID   20877444.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hocking, Ailsa D.; Miscamble, Beverly F.; Pitt, J.I. (January 1994). "Water relations of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Curvularia lunata and Curvularia pallescens". Mycological Research. 98 (1): 91–94. doi:10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80344-4.
  8. ↑ Gottlieb, D. (1 January 1963). "Carbohydrate catabolism by fungi". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 7 (4): 603–610. doi: 10.1351/pac196307040603 . S2CID   96740062.
  9. ↑ Weber, Frans; Hage, Ko; Bont, Jan (Oct 1995). "Growth of the fungus Cladosporium sphaerospermum with toluene as the sole carbon and energy source". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 61 (10): 3562–3566. Bibcode:1995ApEnM..61.3562W. doi:10.1128/aem.61.10.3562-3566.1995. PMC   167650 . PMID   7486990.
  10. ↑ Potin, Olivier; Veignie, Etienne; Rafin, Catherine (December 2004). "Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by Cladosporium sphaerospermum isolated from an aged PAH contaminated soil". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 51 (1): 71–78. doi: 10.1016/j.femsec.2004.07.013 . PMID   16329856.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Ng, K. P.; Yew, S. M.; Chan, C. L.; Soo-Hoo, T. S.; Na, S. L.; Hassan, H.; Ngeow, Y. F.; Hoh, C.-C.; Lee, K.-W.; Yee, W.-Y. (27 April 2012). "Sequencing of Cladosporium sphaerospermum, a Dematiaceous Fungus Isolated from Blood Culture". Eukaryotic Cell. 11 (5): 705–706. doi:10.1128/EC.00081-12. PMC   3346424 . PMID   22544899.
  12. ↑ Qiu-Xia, Chen; Chang-Xing, Li; Wen-Ming, Huang; Jiang-Qiang, Shi; Wen, Li; Shun-Fang, Li (18 July 2007). "Subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis caused by Cladosporium sphaerospermum". Mycoses. 51 (1): 070726205023006––. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2007.01417.x . PMID   18076601. S2CID   33166762.
  13. 1 2 3 Davis, ND; Wagener, E; Dalby, DK; Morgan-Jones, G; Diener, UL (July 1975). "Toxigenic fungi in food". Applied Microbiology. 30 (1): 159–61. doi:10.1128/aem.30.1.159-161.1975. PMC   187141 . PMID   1147614.
  14. ↑ Singh, Jagjit, ed. (1994). Building mycology : management of decay and health in buildings (1st ed.). London: E & FN Spon. ISBN   978-0-419-19020-2.
  15. 1 2 Dugan, F.M.; Braun, U.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Crous, P.W. (1 December 2008). "Morphological plasticity in Cladosporium sphaerospermum". Persoonia. 21 (1): 9–16. doi:10.3767/003158508X334389. PMC   2846128 . PMID   20396574.
  16. 1 2 Patnayak, Rashmi; Verma, Anju; Mudgeti, Nagaraja; Kalawat, Usha; Asha, Thota; Maduri, Alekhya (2015). "Subcutaneous infection by Cladosporium sphaerospermum-A rare case report". Indian Journal of Pathology and Microbiology. 58 (3): 406–7. doi: 10.4103/0377-4929.162936 . PMID   26275282.
  17. ↑ Chen, Chi-Yu; Lu, Po-Liang; Lee, Kun-Mu; Chang, Tsung Chain; Lai, Chung-Chih; Chang, Ko; Lin, Wei-Ru; Lin, Chun-Yu; Chen, Yen-Hsu (December 2013). "Acute Meningitis Caused by Cladosporium sphaerospermum". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 346 (6): 523–525. doi:10.1097/MAJ.0b013e3182a59b5f. PMID   24263083. S2CID   3385023.
  18. ↑ Shunk, Graham K.; Gomez, Xavier R.; Averesch, Nils J. H. (2020-07-17). "A Self-Replicating Radiation-Shield for Human Deep-Space Exploration: Radiotrophic Fungi can Attenuate Ionizing Radiation aboard the International Space Station". bioRxiv: 2020.07.16.205534. doi:10.1101/2020.07.16.205534. S2CID   220650792.
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