Clicker training

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Clicker-training a dog. Dog clicker training.jpg
Clicker-training a dog.

Clicker training is a positive reinforcement [1] animal training method based on a bridging stimulus (the clicker) in operant conditioning. The system uses conditioned reinforcers, which a trainer can deliver more quickly and more precisely than primary reinforcers such as food. The term "clicker" comes from a small metal cricket noisemaker adapted from a child's toy that the trainer uses to precisely mark the desired behavior. When training a new behavior, the clicker helps the animal to quickly identify the precise behavior that results in the treat. The technique is popular with dog trainers, but can be used for all kinds of domestic and wild animals. [2]

Contents

Sometimes, instead of a click to mark the desired behavior, other distinctive sounds are made (such as a "whistle, a click of the tongue, a snap of the fingers, or even a word") [3] or visual or other sensory cues (such as a flashlight, hand sign, or vibrating collar), [4] especially helpful for deaf animals. [5]

History

B. F. Skinner first identified and described the principles of operant conditioning that are used in clicker training. [6] [7] Two students of Skinner's, Marian Kruse and Keller Breland, worked with him researching pigeon behavior and training projects during World War II, when pigeons were taught to "bowl" (push a ball with their beaks). [8] They believed that traditional animal training was being needlessly hindered because methods of praise and reward then in use did not inform the animal of success with enough promptness and precision to create the required cognitive connections for speedy learning. They saw the potential for using the operation conditioning method in commercial animal training. [9] The two later married and in 1947 created Animal Behavior Enterprises (ABE), "the first commercial animal training business to intentionally and systematically incorporate the principles of behavior analysis and operant conditioning into animal training." [9]

The Brelands coined the term "bridging stimulus" in the 1940s to refer to the function of a secondary reinforcer such as a whistle or click. [9] ABE continued operations until 1990, with the assistance of Bob Bailey after Keller Breland died in 1965. [9] They report having trained over 15,000 animals and over 150 species during their time in operation. [9] Their positive methods contrasted with traditional training using aversives such as choke chains, prong collars, leash snapping, ear pinching, “alpha-rolling,” the shock collar, [10] elephant goad, [11] cattle prods, [12] [13] and elephant crushing.

Although the Brelands tried to promote clicker training for dogs in the 1940s and 1950s, and the method had been used successfully in zoos and marine mammal training, the method failed to catch on for dogs until the late 1980s and early 1990s. [14] In 1992, animal trainers Karen Pryor and Gary Wilkes started giving clicker training seminars to dog owners. [14] [15] [16] In 1998, Alexandra Kurland published "Clicker Training For Your Horse," which rejected horse training that uses aversives such as horsebreaking and the use of the spur, bit (horse), crop (implement), and longeing with a horsewhip [14] [17] By the 1990s, many zoos used clicker training for animal husbandry because with this method, they did not have to use force or medication. They could be moved to different pens or given veterinary treatments with much less stress on the animals. [18] In the 21st century, training books began to appear for other companion animals, such as cats, birds, and rabbits (See "Further Reading").

Method

A selection of clickers ClickersFxwb.jpg
A selection of clickers

The first step in clicker training is teaching the animal to associate the clicker sound (or other chosen marker such as a whistle) [3] with a treat. Every time the click sounds, a treat is offered immediately.

Next the click is used to signal that a desired behavior has happened. Some approaches [2] are:

Once the behavior is learned, the final step is to add a cue for the behavior, such as a word or a hand signal. [2] The animal will have learned that a treat is on the way after completing the desired behavior.

The basis of effective clicker training is precise timing to deliver the conditioned reinforcer at the same moment as the desired behaviour is offered. The clicker is used as a "bridge" between the marking of the behaviour and the rewarding with a primary reinforcer such as a treat or a toy. [19] The behaviour can be elicited by "luring", where a hand gesture or a treat is used to coax the dog to sit, for example; or by "shaping", where increasingly closer approximations to the desired behaviour are reinforced; and by "capturing", where the dog's spontaneous offering of the behaviour is rewarded. [20] Once a behaviour is learnt and is on cue (command), the clicker and the treats are faded out. [21]

Punishment or aversives

Clicker training teaches wanted behaviors by rewarding them when they happen, and not using punishments, according to dog trainer Jonathan Philip Klein. [22] [23] [24]

Clicker training uses almost entirely positive reinforcements. Some clicker trainers use mild corrections such as a "non reward marker"; an "Uh-uh" or "Whoops" to let the dog know that the behaviour is not correct, or corrections such as a "Time out" where attention is removed from the dog. [25] Alexander continues:

The meaning of 'purely positive' tends to vary according to who is using it. Some clicker trainers use it as a sort of marketing tool, perhaps to indicate that they eschew corrections and attempt to stick with positive reinforcement as much as possible ...

...[T]he term [purely positive] implies that clicker trainers use no aversives. Extinction [i.e. ignoring a behavior and not providing a reward] and negative punishment are both used by clicker trainers, and BOTH are aversive. Extinction is every bit as aversive as punishment, sometimes even more so. All aversives are not created equal. Some are mild and some are severe.

Some [trainers] use NRMs [Non Reward Markers]; some don't. Some say 'No' or make 'buzzer' sounds; some don't. Some use mild physical punishers like sprays of water or citronella or noise-related booby traps; some don't. Some use negative reinforcement in various fashions; some don't. Some use some of the above in real life but not in training. [26]

Some credit trainer Gary Wilkes with introducing clicker training for dogs to the general public, but behavioral psychologist Karen Pryor was the first to spread the idea with her articles, books (including Don't Shoot the Dog) and seminars.[ citation needed ] Wilkes joined Pryor early on before going solo.[ citation needed ] Wilkes writes [27] that "No method of training is 'all positive.' By scientific definition, the removal of a desired reward is a 'negative punishment.' So, if you ever withhold a treat or use a time-out, by definition, you are a 'negative' trainer who uses 'punishment.'" [28] where "negative" indicates that something has been removed and "punishment" merely indicates there has been a reduction in the behavior (unlike the common use of these terms).

See also

Related Research Articles

Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are conditioned to occur or not occur depending on the environmental consequences of the behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operant conditioning chamber</span> Laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior

An operant conditioning chamber is a laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior. The operant conditioning chamber was created by B. F. Skinner while he was a graduate student at Harvard University. The chamber can be used to study both operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

In reinforcement theory, it is argued that human behavior is a result of "contingent consequences" to human actions. The publication pushes forward the idea that "you get what you reinforce". This means that behavior, when given the right types of reinforcers, can be changed for the better and negative behavior can be reinforced away.

Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment contingencies, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of heredity in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog training</span> Practice of teaching behaviors to dogs

Dog training is a kind of animal training, the application of behavior analysis which uses the environmental events of antecedents and consequences to modify the dog behavior, either for it to assist in specific activities or undertake particular tasks, or for it to participate effectively in contemporary domestic life. While training dogs for specific roles dates back to Roman times at least, the training of dogs to be compatible household pets developed with suburbanization in the 1950s.

A dog collar is a piece of material put around the neck of a dog. A collar may be used for restraint, identification, fashion, protection, or training. Identification tags and medical information are often placed on dog collars. Collars are often used in conjunction with a leash for restraining a dog. Collars can be traumatic to the trachea if the dog pulls against the restraint of the leash, causing severe pressure to the neck. Use of a harness instead of a collar may be beneficial for dogs prone to tracheitis or those with a collapsed trachea. Conversely, dog breeds with slender necks or smaller heads may easily slip out of collars that are too loose. This can be avoided by using a martingale dog collar which tightens to distribute pressure around the neck when training the dog not to pull. Any style of dog collar must be properly fitted to ensure safety and collars should not be worn when the dog is unattended.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal training</span> Teaching animals specific responses to specific conditions or stimuli

Animal training is the act of teaching animals specific responses to specific conditions or stimuli. Training may be for purposes such as companionship, detection, protection, and entertainment. The type of training an animal receives will vary depending on the training method used, and the purpose for training the animal. For example, a seeing eye dog will be trained to achieve a different goal than a wild animal in a circus.

Behaviour therapy or behavioural psychotherapy is a broad term referring to clinical psychotherapy that uses techniques derived from behaviourism and/or cognitive psychology. It looks at specific, learned behaviours and how the environment, or other people's mental states, influences those behaviours, and consists of techniques based on behaviorism's theory of learning: respondent or operant conditioning. Behaviourists who practice these techniques are either behaviour analysts or cognitive-behavioural therapists. They tend to look for treatment outcomes that are objectively measurable. Behaviour therapy does not involve one specific method, but it has a wide range of techniques that can be used to treat a person's psychological problems.

Shaping is a conditioning paradigm used primarily in the experimental analysis of behavior. The method used is differential reinforcement of successive approximations. It was introduced by B. F. Skinner with pigeons and extended to dogs, dolphins, humans and other species. In shaping, the form of an existing response is gradually changed across successive trials towards a desired target behavior by reinforcing exact segments of behavior. Skinner's explanation of shaping was this:

We first give the bird food when it turns slightly in the direction of the spot from any part of the cage. This increases the frequency of such behavior. We then withhold reinforcement until a slight movement is made toward the spot. This again alters the general distribution of behavior without producing a new unit. We continue by reinforcing positions successively closer to the spot, then by reinforcing only when the head is moved slightly forward, and finally only when the beak actually makes contact with the spot. ... The original probability of the response in its final form is very low; in some cases it may even be zero. In this way we can build complicated operants which would never appear in the repertoire of the organism otherwise. By reinforcing a series of successive approximations, we bring a rare response to a very high probability in a short time. ... The total act of turning toward the spot from any point in the box, walking toward it, raising the head, and striking the spot may seem to be a functionally coherent unit of behavior; but it is constructed by a continual process of differential reinforcement from undifferentiated behavior, just as the sculptor shapes his figure from a lump of clay.

Instinctive drift, alternately known as instinctual drift, is the tendency of an animal to revert to unconscious and automatic behaviour that interferes with learned behaviour from operant conditioning. Instinctive drift was coined by Keller and Marian Breland, former students of B.F. Skinner at the University of Minnesota, describing the phenomenon as "a clear and utter failure of conditioning theory." B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist and father of operant conditioning, which is a learning strategy that teaches the performance of an action either through reinforcement or punishment. It is through the association of the behaviour and the reward or consequence that follows that depicts whether an animal will maintain a behaviour, or if it will become extinct. Instinctive drift is a phenomenon where such conditioning erodes and an animal reverts to its natural behaviour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avoidance response</span> Response that prevents an aversive stimulus

An avoidance response is a response that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. It is a kind of negative reinforcement. An avoidance response is a behavior based on the concept that animals will avoid performing behaviors that result in an aversive outcome. This can involve learning through operant conditioning when it is used as a training technique. It is a reaction to undesirable sensations or feedback that leads to avoiding the behavior that is followed by this unpleasant or fear-inducing stimulus.

Sophia Yin was a veterinarian, applied animal behaviorist, author and lecturer. She was a pioneer in the use of positive reinforcement for training dogs, and was widely recognized as an expert in the training of pets.

In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the human/animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs. This is called motivating operations (MO), because they alter the effectiveness of a stimulus. MO can be categorized in abolishing operations, decrease the effectiveness of the stimuli and establishing, increase the effectiveness of the stimuli. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.

Marian "Mouse" Breland Bailey was an American psychologist, an applied behavior analyst who played a major role in developing empirically validated and humane animal training methods and in promoting their widespread implementation. She and her first husband, Keller Breland (1915–1965), studied at the University of Minnesota under behaviorist B. F. Skinner and became "the first applied animal psychologists." Together they wrote the book Animal Behavior which was first published in 1966, after Keller's death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shock collar</span> Dog training device using electrical pain to change behavior

A shock collar or remote training collar, also known as an e-collar, Ecollar, or electronic collar) is a type of training collar that utilizes electrical shocks to induce pain to the neck of a dog or other parts of its body, depending on the desired outcome. These collars incorporate a radio-controlled electronic device and are worn around the dog's neck. Many European countries view shock collars as animal cruelty and have banned their use. The mechanism behind shock collars involve inflicting varying levels and duration of pain, which generates fear and serves as a deterrent for undesirable behaviors. Some models of shock collar models offer additional features such as a tone or vibrational setting that can be used as an alternative or in combination with the shock. Certain advanced collars include Internet mapping capabilities and GPS functionality to track the dog's location or notify the owner about its whereabouts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrot training</span>

Parrot training, also called parrot teaching, is the application of training techniques to modify the behavior of household companion parrots. Training is used to deal with behavior problems such as biting and screaming, to train husbandry behaviors such as allowing claw trimming without restraint or accepting a parrot harness, and to teach various tricks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat training</span> Modifying a cats behavior

Cat training is the process of modifying a domestic cat's behavior for entertainment or companionship purposes. Training is commonly used to reduce unwanted or problematic behaviors in domestic cats, to enhance interactions between humans and pet cats, and to allow them to coexist comfortably. There are various methods for training cats which employ different balances between reward and punishment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zak George</span> American broadcaster and dog trainer (born 1978)

Zak George is an American dog trainer, writer, and broadcast personality known for his Youtube channel, hosting shows such as SuperFetch in 2009, Who Let the Dogs Out? in 2011, and hosting various shows on the Animal Planet. He is the author of the book Zak George's Dog Training Revolution, published in 2016; he has been a guest writer on many articles and blogs on dog training and obedience over his 16 year career. He is known for using positive reinforcement training methods, and his upbeat and energetic personality on camera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine mammal training</span>

Marine mammal training is the training and caring for marine mammals, such as dolphins, orcas, sea lions, and walruses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karen Pryor</span> American author (born 1932)

Karen Pryor is an American author who specialized in behavioral psychology and marine mammal biology. She is a founder and proponent of clicker training. She was formerly a Marine Mammal Commissioner to the U.S. government.

References

  1. ↑ Gillis, Timothy E.; Janes, Amy C.; Kaufman, Marc J. (August 2012). "Positive Reinforcement Training in Squirrel Monkeys Using Clicker Training: Squirrel Monkey Positive Reinforcement Training". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (8): 712–720. doi:10.1002/ajp.22015. PMC   3412074 . PMID   22553135.
  2. 1 2 3 "Clicker Training Your Pet", ASPCA, accessed July 28, 2014.
  3. 1 2 "5 Clicker Training Myths", Wag the Dog, accessed July 29, 2014.
  4. ↑ "Clicker Training for Deaf Dogs", Deaf Dog Education Action Fund, accessed July 29, 2014.
  5. ↑ Pryor 1999, p. 4.
  6. ↑ Skinner, B. F. (1 December 1951). "How to Teach Animals". Scientific American. 185 (6): 26–29. Bibcode:1951SciAm.185f..26S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1251-26. JSTOR   24950550.
  7. ↑ Skinner, B. F (1938). The behavior of organisms an experimental analysis. D. Appleton-Century. OCLC   598598605.[ page needed ]
  8. ↑ Peterson, G. (2000). "The Discovery of Shaping or B.F. Skinner's Big Surprise". The Clicker Journal: The Magazine for Animal Trainers. 43: 6–13.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Bailey, Robert E.; Gillaspy, J. Arthur (2005). "Operant psychology goes to the fair: Marian and Keller Breland in the popular press, 1947-1966". The Behavior Analyst. 28 (2): 143–159. doi:10.1007/BF03392110. PMC   2755380 . PMID   22478446.
  10. ↑ "Three Popular Approaches to Dog Training Explained". 8 November 2019.
  11. ↑ Klein, Joanna (18 January 2017). "How Zoo Animals Learn to Help Take Care of Themselves". The New York Times.
  12. ↑ Clicker Training with Horses
  13. ↑ Why Use a Clicker for Dog Training?
  14. 1 2 3 "Modern Training and Clicker Training for Pet Owners", History of Behavior Analysis, accessed July 28, 2014.
  15. ↑ Pryor, Karen. "History of Clicker Training I". Karen Pryor Clicker Treaining. Karen Pryor. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  16. ↑ Wilkes, Gary (3 January 2014). "What is Real Clicker Training?". Gary Wilkes' Real Clicker Training. Gary Wilkes. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  17. ↑ Kurland, Alexandra, "Clicker Training for Your Horse" (2004 edition, Ringpress Books), ISBN   1-86054-292-1.
  18. ↑ Forthman, Debra L.; Ogden, Jacqueline J. (1992). "The role of applied behavior analysis in zoo management: Today and tomorrow". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 25 (3): 647–652. doi:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-647. PMC   1279745 . PMID   16795790.
  19. ↑ Pryor 1999, p. 29.
  20. ↑ Pryor 1999, p. 60–62.
  21. ↑ Grobbelaar, Claire. "What is Clicker Training?" . Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  22. ↑ Interview with Jonathan Klein (2016). "Dog Trainer Jonathan Klein Talks About Dog Food Truck Tour In LA". CBS Local. Retrieved April 27, 2016. ...(reward-based training)... rather than punishing them ... teaching them that the behavior that we want them to do, there's something in it for them...
  23. ↑ Michelle Chance (November 14, 2013). "'Real Housewives of Beverly Hills': Is Kim's dog trainer abusive?". Zap2It. Archived from the original on May 21, 2016. Retrieved April 27, 2016. ...Award-winning dog trainer and nationally recognized dog behavior consultant Jonathan Klein, .... "Training with force and pain is just plain wrong," says Klein...
  24. ↑ Linda DiProperzio (June 2016). "The Power of Positive Dog Training - Jonathan Klein dog behaviorist". Parents Magazine. Retrieved June 24, 2016. ...The most common problem we see is the pet acting up because it's not getting the same attention it was used to getting," Klein explains. ...
  25. ↑ Alexander, Melissa (1 July 2003). ""NRMs" No Reward Markers" . Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  26. ↑ Alexander, Melissa (30 December 2006). "The Myth of 'Purely Positive'". Karen Pryor Clicker Training. Karen Pryor. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
  27. ↑ Morgan, Spector (1 March 2009). "Who Started Clicker Training for Dogs?". Karen Pryor Clicker Training. Karen Pryor. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
  28. ↑ Wilkes, Gary. "Clicker Training: What it isn't". Gary Wilkes' Click and Treat. Gary Wilkes. Retrieved 26 June 2016.

Further reading

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