Detection dog

Last updated

Detection dog training in U.S. Navy military for drug detection US Navy 101108-N-8546L-040 Chief Master-at-Arms Nick Estrada, left, a U.S. Navy military working dog handler from Orange, Calif.jpg
Detection dog training in U.S. Navy military for drug detection
An English Springer Spaniel on duty as a detection dog with the British Transport Police at Waterloo station London Police Dogs.jpg
An English Springer Spaniel on duty as a detection dog with the British Transport Police at Waterloo station

A detection dog or sniffer dog is a dog that is trained to use its senses to detect substances such as explosives, illegal drugs, wildlife scat, currency, blood, and contraband electronics such as illicit mobile phones. [1] The sense most used by detection dogs is smell. Hunting dogs that search for game, and search and rescue dogs that work to find missing humans are generally not considered detection dogs but fit instead under their own categories. There is some overlap, as in the case of cadaver dogs, trained to search for human remains.

Contents

A police dog is essentially a detection dog that is used as a resource for police in specific scenarios such as conducting drug raids, finding missing criminals, and locating stashed currency. Frequently, detection dogs are thought to be used for law enforcement purposes. Experts say that dog-sniff evidence should not be used in the criminal justice system, pointing to wrongful convictions, human biases that skew animal behavior, and the lack of systematic research into what dogs detect or how they do it. [2]

Although detection dogs are often used for law enforcement purposes, they are also used as a valuable research tool for wildlife biologists. In California, detection dogs are trained to discover quagga mussels on boats at public boat ramps because they are a harmful invasive species for the environment. Detection dogs also tend to be employed for the purposes of finding and collecting the feces of a diverse array of species, including caribou, [3] black-footed ferret, killer whale, [4] and Oregon spotted frog. This process is known as wildlife scat detection.

Functions

Ukrainian sapper with a landmine finder dog Patron in Ukraine after battle during the 2022 Russian invasion Shestovytsia after battle, 19 April 2022 (03).jpg
Ukrainian sapper with a landmine finder dog Patron in Ukraine after battle during the 2022 Russian invasion
Knapweed Nightmare noxious weed detection dog wearing GPS tracking harness Knapweed Nightmare noxious weed detection dog wearing GPS tracking harness.jpg
Knapweed Nightmare noxious weed detection dog wearing GPS tracking harness

Detection dogs have been trained to search for many things, both animate and inanimate, including:

Sniffer dogs can be trained to locate small infestations of invasive and non-native weeds. The world's first Spotted Knapweed K-9 detection program successfully completed field-testing for Montana State University in 2004. Upon completion of the testing, Knapweed Nightmare was finding low densities of non-native invasive knapweed rosettes in the field with a 93% overall success rate. [12] She followed it up with 98% in the final trials in open fields, demonstrating that dogs can effectively detect low densities of invasive plants. [13]

Detection dogs are able to discern individual scents even when the scents are combined or masked by other odors. In 2002, a detection dog foiled a woman's attempt to smuggle marijuana into an Australian prison in Brisbane. The marijuana had been inserted into a balloon, which was smeared with coffee, pepper, and petroleum jelly and then placed in her bra. [14]

Bed bug detection dogs

Detection dogs are often specially trained by handlers to identify the scent of bed bugs. With the increased focus on green pest management and integrated pest management, as well as the increase in global travel and shared living accommodations, bed bugs have become more prevalent. Detecting bed bugs is a complicated process because insects have the ability to hide almost anywhere. Detection dogs help solve this problem because of their size, speed, and sense of smell. Detection dogs use their unique ability to smell in parts per trillion in order to track bed bugs in every phase of their life cycle. They can find bugs in places humans cannot such as wall voids, crevices, and furniture gaps. Dogs are also a safer alternative to pesticide use. If detection dogs can find out exactly where bed bugs are located, they can minimize the area that needs to be sprayed.

The National Pest Management Association released their "Bed Bug Best Management Practices" [15] in 2011 which outlines the minimum recommendations regarding not only treatment, but the certification and use of bed bug detection canines. The NPMA's Best Management Practices emphasizes the importance of having bed bug detection dog teams certified by third party organizations who are not affiliated to the trainer or company that sold the canine.

Scientists at the University of Kentucky reviewed studies on bed bug detection dogs and concluded that although expensive for operators, they are a reliable source as long as they undergo the proper training. [16] In another study, detection dogs had a 97.5% correct positive indication rate on identifying bed bugs ( Cimex lectularius ) and their eggs – with zero false positives – all while accurately distinguishing them from carpenter ants, cockroaches, and termites. They also successfully differentiated live bed bugs and viable bed bug eggs from dead bed bugs, cast skins, and feces with a 95% correct positive indication rate. [17]

Bed bug detection dogs should be certified by a national organization like the World Detector Dog Organization (WDDO) or the National Entomology Scent Detection Canine Association (NESDCA). There are a few independent K9 bed bug inspection companies that have multiple certifications.

Wildlife scat detection

Scat is abundant in the wild and contains valuable data. [18] [19] Wildlife scat detection represents a fairly non-invasive method of study for many species where live-capture once predominated. Compared with other methods of scat collection, dogs are able to survey larger areas in less time at decreased costs. [20] Research shows that detection dogs can find laboratory rats and mice in a large rodent-free area of 32 hectares (an extremely large area). [21] Some specific types of feces that detection dogs have had success in identifying include killer whale feces, [4] northern spotted owl pellets, [22] and salamanders. [23]

COVID-19 detection

Some countries have trained dogs to detect COVID-19. Australia has been using some of these in 2021. [24]

Researchers in Paris in March 2022 reported in a preprint not yet peer-reviewed that trained dogs were very effective for rapidly detecting the presence of SARS-Cov2 in people, whether displaying symptoms or not. The dogs were presented with sweat samples to smell from 335 people, of whom 78 with symptoms and 31 without tested positive by PCR. The dogs detected 97% of the symptomatic and 100% of the asymptomatic infections. They were 91% accurate at identifying volunteers who were not infected, and 94% accurate at ruling out the infection in people without symptoms. The authors said "Canine testing is non-invasive and provides immediate and reliable results. Further studies will be focused on direct sniffing by dogs to evaluate sniffer dogs for mass pre-test in airports, harbors, railways stations, cultural activities, or sporting events." [25] [26]

Criticism

Accuracy

Australia

Police and a drug detection dog at Newtown train station in Sydney in 2017

In 2001, the Australian state of New South Wales introduced legislation that granted police the power to use drug detection dogs without a warrant in public places such as licensed venues (venues licensed to serve alcohol), music festivals, and public transport. [27] : 1 

The law was reviewed in 2006 by the New South Wales Ombudsman, who handed down a critical report regarding the use of dogs for drug detection. The report stated that prohibited drugs were found in only 26% of searches following an indication by a drug sniffer dog. Of these, 84% were for small amounts of cannabis deemed for personal use. [27] : 29  Subsequent figures obtained from NSW Police in 2023 revealed that between 1 January 2013 and 30 June 2023, officers had conducted 94,535 personal searches (refers to both strip searches and less invasive frisk or "general" searches) resulting from drug detection dog indications, with only 25% resulting in illicit drugs being found. [28]

In late 2014, reports were first published alleging that NSW Police were routinely using drug detection dog indications as a justification for conducting invasive strip searches, particularly at major events such as music festivals (see New South Wales Police Force strip search scandal). [29] [30] Data obtained from NSW Police shows that between 1 July 2014 and 30 June 2020, officers conducted 27,835 strip searches "in the field" (outside of a police station). [31] : 25  [32] : 12  Separate data shows that during the same six-year period, officers conducted 5659 strip searches resulting from drug detection dog indications. [32] : 72 

In October 2018, the Law Enforcement Conduct Commission launched a formal investigation into the use of strip searches by NSW Police. [32] : ii  In a final report handed down in December 2020, the commission found that there had been a "significant increase" in the "number and proportion" of strip searches carried out following drug detection dog indications in the five years between 2014 and 2019. [32] : 71  In July 2022, a class action was filed in the Supreme Court of New South Wales on behalf of patrons strip searched at music festivals by NSW Police from July 2016 onwards. Head plaintiff for the class action is a then 27-year-old woman who was wrongly strip searched at the Splendour in the Grass music festival in 2018 after being stopped by a drug detection dog. [33]

United States

A detection dog searches a car for explosives at a checkpoint in Washington, D.C. Washington DC Security Search.JPG
A detection dog searches a car for explosives at a checkpoint in Washington, D.C.

In 2011, civil rights activists claimed that detection dogs responses are influenced by the biases and behaviors of their handlers, which can hinder accuracy. [34] Another factor that affects accuracy is residual odors. Residual odors can linger even after illegal materials have been removed from a particular area, and can lead to false alarms. Additionally, very few states have mandatory training, testing, or certification standards for detection dogs. [34] This leaves people to question whether they are truly equipped to carry out searches.

Sniffer dogs can be trained to detect crop pests and diseases. A study by the US Department of Agriculture found that sniffer dogs identified trees infected with citrus greening disease with 99% accuracy; they could detect infection as early as two weeks after onset. [35]

Civil rights

Detection dogs give police the potential to conduct searches without cause, in a manner that is unregulated. [36] [37] They are often accused of being motivated more by the state's desire to be seen doing something than by any serious desire to respond to the dangers of drugs use. [38] In June 2012, three Nevada Highway Patrol officers filed suit against Nevada's Director of Public Safety, alleging that he violated the police dog program by intentionally training canines to be "trick ponies" – to falsely alert based on cues from their handlers (Clever Hans effect) – so as to enable officers to conduct illegal searches of vehicles. The lawsuit claims that in doing so, he and other top Highway Patrol officers had violated the federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO Act). [39]

In Norway, students were subjected to a drug search in their classroom by a detection dog. The students didn't have to be present in the room while the dogs searched; however, they were forced to answer questions by the police instead. [40] An article in Tidsskrift for strafferett, Norway's journal of criminal law, claims that such searches breach Norwegian law. [40]

Detector dogs have been used by secret police and security services to support campaigns of political persecution. For example, sweat collected from subjects following interrogation was used by the Stasi to train dogs to respond to their scent. [41]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English Springer Spaniel</span> Breed of gun dog

The English Springer Spaniel is a breed of gun dog in the Spaniel group traditionally used for flushing and retrieving game. They are descended from the Norfolk or Shropshire Spaniels of the mid-19th century; the breed has diverged into separate show and working lines. It is closely related to the Welsh Springer Spaniel and very closely to the English Cocker Spaniel; less than a century ago, springers and cockers would come from the same litter. The smaller "cockers" were used in woodcock hunting while their larger littermates were used to flush, or "spring", other game birds, hence the name. In 1902, The Kennel Club recognized the English Springer Spaniel as a distinct breed. They are used as sniffer dogs on a widespread basis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Police dog</span> Dog trained and used for law enforcement

A police dog, also known as a K-9, is a dog that is trained to assist police and other law enforcement officers. Their duties may include searching for drugs and explosives, locating missing people, finding crime scene evidence, protecting officers and other people, and attacking suspects who flee from officers. The breeds most commonly used by law enforcement are the German Shepherd, Belgian Malinois, Bloodhound, Dutch Shepherd, and Labrador Retriever. In recent years, the Belgian Malinois has become the leading choice for police and military work due to their intense drive, focus, agility, and smaller size, though German Shepherds remain the breed most associated with law enforcement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New South Wales Police Force</span> Law enforcement agency of New South Wales, Australia

The New South Wales Police Force is a law enforcement agency of the state of New South Wales, Australia, established in 1862. With more than 17,000 police officers, it is the largest police organisation in Australia, policing an area of 801,600 square kilometres with a population of more than 8.2 million people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Strip search</span> Searching a person with clothing removed

A strip search is a practice of searching a person for weapons or other contraband suspected of being hidden on their body or inside their clothing, and not found by performing a frisk search, but by requiring the person to remove some or all clothing. The search may involve an official performing an intimate person search and inspecting their personal effects and body cavities. A strip search is more intrusive than a frisk and requires legal authority. Regulations covering strip searches vary considerably and may be mandatory in some situations or discretionary in others.

United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696 (1983), is a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in which the Court held that it does not violate the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution for a trained police dog to sniff of a person's luggage or property in a public place.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tracking (dog)</span> Ability of dogs to recognize and follow a specific scent

Tracking refers to a dog's ability to detect, recognize and follow a specific scent. Possessing heightened olfactory abilities, dogs, especially scent hounds, are able to detect, track and locate the source of certain odours. A deeper understanding of the physiological mechanisms and the phases involved in canine scent tracking has allowed humans to utilize this animal behaviour in a variety of professions. Through domestication and the human application of dog behaviour, different methods and influential factors on tracking ability have been discovered. While tracking was once considered a predatory technique of dogs in the wild, it has now become widely used by humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Working animal</span> Domesticated animals for assisting people

A working animal is an animal, usually domesticated, that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks instead of being slaughtered to harvest animal products. Some are used for their physical strength or for transportation, while others are service animals trained to execute certain specialized tasks. They may also be used for milking or herding. Some, at the end of their working lives, may also be used for meat or leather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Search and rescue dog</span> Dog trained to locate or retrieve a missing or trapped person

A search-and-rescue (SAR) dog is a dog trained to respond to crime scenes, accidents, missing persons events, as well as natural or man-made disasters. These dogs detect human scent, which is a distinct odor of skin flakes and water and oil secretions unique to each person and have been known to find people under water, snow, and collapsed buildings, as well as remains buried underground. SAR dogs are a non-invasive aid in the location of humans, alive or deceased.

Canine cancer detection is an approach to cancer screening that relies upon the claimed olfactory ability of dogs to detect, in urine or in breath, very low concentrations of the alkanes and aromatic compounds generated by malignant tumors. While some research has been promising, no verified studies by secondary research groups have substantiated the validity of positive, conclusive results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dogs in warfare</span>

Dogs have a very long history in warfare, starting in ancient times. From being trained in combat, to their use as the scouts, sentries, messengers, mercy dogs, and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.

Illinois v. Caballes, 543 U.S. 405 (2005), is a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in which the Court held that the use of a drug-sniffing police dog during a routine traffic stop does not violate the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, even if the initial infraction is unrelated to drug offenses.

Dogs, as with all mammals, have natural odors. Natural dog odor can be unpleasant to dog owners, especially when dogs are kept inside the home, as some people are not used to being exposed to the natural odor of a non-human species living in proximity to them. Dogs may also develop unnatural odors as a result of skin disease or other disorders or may become contaminated with odors from other sources in their environment.

Steve Austin is an Australian dog trainer, who has been training dogs for over 30 years. He is renowned as one of Australia's top animal trainers, with a particular skill in dog behaviour and training. His lifetime in dog training has seen him train animals for quarantine, search and rescue, police work, and wildlife preservation, among other roles. He has also travelled internationally lecturing and training dogs.

<i>Florida v. Jardines</i> 2013 United States Supreme Court case

Florida v. Jardines, 569 U.S. 1 (2013), was a United States Supreme Court case which resulted in the decision that police use of a trained detection dog to sniff for narcotics on the front porch of a private home is a "search" within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and therefore, without consent, requires both probable cause and a search warrant.

<i>Florida v. Harris</i> 2013 United States Supreme Court case

Florida v. Harris, 568 U.S. 237 (2013), was a case in which the United States Supreme Court addressed the reliability of a dog sniff by a detection dog trained to identify narcotics, under the specific context of whether law enforcement's assertions that the dog is trained or certified is sufficient to establish probable cause for a search of a vehicle under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Harris was the first Supreme Court case to challenge the dog's reliability, backed by data that asserts that on average, up to 80% of a dog's alerts are wrong. Twenty-four U.S. States, the federal government, and two U.S. territories filed briefs in support of Florida as amici curiae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog sense of smell</span> Olfactory sensory system

The dog sense of smell is the most powerful sense of this species, the olfactory system of canines being much more complex and developed than that of humans. It is believed to be up to 10 million times as sensitive as a human's in specialized breeds. Dogs have roughly forty times more smell-sensitive receptors than humans, ranging from about 125 million to nearly 300 million in some dog breeds, such as bloodhounds. These receptors are spread over an area about the size of a pocket handkerchief. Dogs' sense of smell also includes the use of the vomeronasal organ, which is used primarily for social interactions.

Following the introduction of a controversial law in 2001, New South Wales Police were given the power to deploy specially trained drug detection dogs at major public events, licensed venues and on selected routes across Sydney's public transport network. In 2006, a report published by the New South Wales Ombudsman found that these were significant issues with the way drug detection dogs were being used by NSW Police, including civil liberties concerns, false positives, and low rates of accuracy. At the time of the report's publication, most people stopped by the dogs had either been subjected to pat down search or a search of their belongings. The report mentioned cases of strip searches being conducted, however the Ombudsman noted that such incidents were rare at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New South Wales Police Force strip search scandal</span> Policing scandal

The New South Wales Police Force strip search scandal refers to an ongoing policing scandal surrounding the routine and arbitrary use of strip searches by members of the New South Wales Police Force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Knapweed Nightmare</span> Dog trained to detect non-native invasive weeds

Knapweed Nightmare was the first dog trained "to locate a plant within a plant community" which enabled her to track down low densities of invasive non-native noxious weeds. Nightmare is a sable shepherd dog trained by Montana based, Rocky Mountain Command Dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worldwide usage of police dogs</span>

In law enforcement work, police dogs are used worldwide for a variety of purposes that include apprehension, detection, and search and rescue.

References

  1. ↑ Jenkins, Austin (22 July 2009). "KPLU: Dogs Used to Sniff Out Cell Phones in NW Prisons". Publicbroadcasting.net. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
  2. ↑ "Should a dog's sniff be enough to convict a person of murder?". science.org. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
  3. ↑ Wasser, Samuel K; Keim, Jonah L; Taper, Mark L; Lele, Subhash R (2011). "The influences of wolf predation, habitat loss, and human activity on caribou and moose in the Alberta oil sands". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9 (10): 546–51. Bibcode:2011FrEE....9..546W. doi:10.1890/100071.
  4. 1 2 Ayres, Katherine L.; Booth, Rebecca K.; Hempelmann, Jennifer A.; Koski, Kari L.; Emmons, Candice K.; Baird, Robin W.; Balcomb-Bartok, Kelley; Hanson, M. Bradley; Ford, Michael J.; Wasser, Samuel K. (2012). "Distinguishing the Impacts of Inadequate Prey and Vessel Traffic on an Endangered Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) Population". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e36842. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736842A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036842 . PMC   3368900 . PMID   22701560.
  5. ↑ "Sniffer dogs can help enhance fight against drug traffickers, says trainer". 1 April 2012.
  6. ↑ Reindl-Thompson, Sara A.; Shivik, John A.; Whitelaw, Alice; Hurt, Aimee; Higgins, Kenneth F. (2006). "Efficacy of Scent Dogs in Detecting Black-Footed Ferrets at a Reintroduction Site in South Dakota". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 34 (5): 1435–9. doi:10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1435:EOSDID]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR   4134282. S2CID   53534532.
  7. ↑ King, Anthony (24 August 2013). "The nose knows". New Scientist.
  8. ↑ "CADA Home Page". Canine Accelerant Detection Association (CADA). Retrieved 10 November 2013.
  9. ↑ Anderson, Jessica (10 July 2008). "Prisons enlist dogs to keep out phones: Canines part of effort to keep contraband out of state facilities". The Baltimore Sun .
  10. ↑ Dietsch, Deborah K. (26 August 2004). "You Can Teach a Mold Dog New Tricks". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  11. 1 2 Locke, Stefan. "Spürhund Artus: Ritter der Schnüffelhunde". Frankfurter Allgemeine Magazin (in German). ISSN   0174-4909 . Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  12. ↑ "Your Dog's Ability To Track Scents". Whole Dog Journal. 2005. Retrieved 10 January 2005.
  13. ↑ "Using Canines to Detect Spotted Knapweed: Field Surveys & Characterization of Plant Volatiles". Goodwin, Kim Marie. 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
  14. ↑ Sims, Michael (2009). "DVDs and Marijuana". In the Womb: Animals. National Geographic Books. p. 46. ISBN   9781426201752.
  15. ↑ "NPMA Bed Bugs Best Management Practices website home page". National Pest Management Association. 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  16. ↑ Potter, Michael F; Romero, Alvero; Haynes, Kenneth F. "BATTLING BED BUGS IN THE USA" (PDF). International Conference on Urban Pests. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  17. ↑ Tsutsui, Neil D.; Choe, Dong-Hwan; Sutherland, Andrew M.; Tabuchi, Robin L.; Moore, Sara E.; Lewis, Vernard R. (2013). "Researchers combat resurgence of bed bug in behavioral studies and monitor trials". California Agriculture. 67 (3): 172–8. doi: 10.3733/ca.v067n03p172 .
  18. ↑ Wasser, S K; Risler, L; Wasser, L M (1986). "Use of techniques to extract steroid hormones from primate feces". Primate Report. 14: 194–195.
  19. ↑ Wasser, S. K.; Monfort, S. L.; Wildt, D. E. (1991). "Rapid extraction of faecal steroids for measuring reproductive cyclicity and early pregnancy in free-ranging yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus)". Reproduction. 92 (2): 415–23. doi: 10.1530/jrf.0.0920415 . PMID   1886098.
  20. ↑ Wasser, Samuel K; Davenport, Barbara; Ramage, Elizabeth R; Hunt, Kathleen E; Parker, Margaret; Clarke, Christine; Stenhouse, Gordon (2004). "Scat detection dogs in wildlife research and management: Application to grizzly and black bears in the Yellowhead Ecosystem, Alberta, Canada". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 82 (3): 475–92. doi:10.1139/z04-020.
  21. ↑ Gsell, Anna; Innes, John; Monchy, Pim de; Brunton, Dianne (22 March 2010). "The success of using trained dogs to locate sparse rodents in pest-free sanctuaries". Wildlife Research. 37 (1): 39–46. doi:10.1071/WR09117. ISSN   1448-5494.
  22. ↑ Wasser, Samuel K.; Hayward, Lisa S.; Hartman, Jennifer; Booth, Rebecca K.; Broms, Kristin; Berg, Jodi; Seely, Elizabeth; Lewis, Lyle; Smith, Heath (2012). "Using Detection Dogs to Conduct Simultaneous Surveys of Northern Spotted (Strix occidentalis caurina) and Barred Owls (Strix varia)". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e42892. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742892W. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042892 . PMC   3419739 . PMID   22916175.
  23. ↑ "New Mexico Shelter Dogs Come to the Rescue for Rare Salamanders". The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  24. ↑ "Job of sniffing out COVID cases given to canine recruits". ABC News. 6 September 2021.
  25. ↑ Grandjean, Dominique; Elie, Caroline; Gallet, Capucine; Julien, Clotilde; Roger, Vinciane; Desquilbet, Loïc; Alvergnat, Guillaume; Delarue, Séverine; Gabassi, Audrey; Minier, Marine; Choupeaux, Laure; Kerneis, Solen; Delaugerre, Constance; Le Goff, Jérôme; Treluyer, Jean-Marc (8 March 2022), "Diagnostic Accuracy of Non-Invasive Detection of Sars-Cov-2 Infection by Canine Olfaction", PLOS ONE, 17 (6), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory: e0268382, Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1768382G, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268382 , medRxiv   10.1101/2022.03.07.22271219 , PMC   9159600 , PMID   35648737, S2CID   247291441
  26. ↑ "Dogs Sniff Out Coronavirus With High Accuracy". Medscape. Reuters. 10 March 2022.[ permanent dead link ]
  27. 1 2 Review of the Police Powers (Drug Detection Dogs) Act 2001. New South Wales Ombudsman. June 2006. ISBN   1-921131-36-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  28. ↑ Mcleod, Catie (9 November 2023). "NSW police sniffer dogs incorrectly detect drugs on patrons despite costing taxpayers $46m over past decade". The Guardian.
  29. ↑ Gregoire, Paul (10 October 2014). "Strip Searches are Now Routine in New South Wales". Vice.
  30. ↑ Corderoy, Amy (2 December 2014). "Police in doghouse over strip searches". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  31. ↑ Sentas, Vicki; Grewcock, Michael (August 2019). Rethinking Strip Searches by NSW Police (PDF). UNSW. ISBN   978-0-7334-3877-6.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Inquiry into NSW Police Force strip search practices. Law Enforcement Conduct Commission. December 2020
  33. ↑ McGowan, Michael (22 July 2022). "Music festival patrons launch class action against NSW police alleging unlawful strip-searches". The Guardian.
  34. 1 2 Hinkel, Dan; Mahr, Joe (6 January 2011). "Tribune analysis: Drug-sniffing dogs in traffic stops often wrong". Chicago Tribune . Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  35. ↑ Pain, Stephanie (2020). "The accidental tree killers". Knowable Magazine. doi: 10.1146/knowable-092120-1 . S2CID   224939766.
  36. ↑ Saville, Sebastian (9 July 2008). "Sniffer dog checks bite into our civil liberties". The Guardian . Retrieved 1 May 2010.
  37. ↑ Marks, Amber (31 March 2008). "Smells suspicious". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 May 2010.
  38. ↑ Race, K (2009). Pleasure Consuming Medicine: The queer politics of drugs. Durham: Duke University Press.[ page needed ]
  39. ↑ Vogel, Ed (26 June 2012). "Officers file suit alleging wrongdoing in police dog training program". Las Vegas Review Journal. Archived from the original on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
  40. 1 2 Svarstad, Jørgen (19 November 2011). "Over 1000 osloelever narkosjekket" [Over 1000 Oslo students drug checked]. Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Retrieved 11 September 2012.
  41. ↑ "Real spies, not Bond, take spotlight at new International Spy Museum (2019)". The Spokesman-Review. 8 May 2019. pp. a4. Retrieved 9 March 2021.

Further reading

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Detection dogs at Wikimedia Commons

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.