Carpenter ant

Last updated

Carpenter ant
Temporal range: Eocene – Recent 52.2–0  Ma
Carpenter ant Tanzania crop.jpg
Camponotus sp. (worker)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe: Camponotini
Genus: Camponotus
Mayr, 1861
Type species
Formica ligniperda
Latreille, 1802
Diversity
> 1,000 species
Synonyms [1]
  • CondylomyrmaSantschi, 1928
  • DolophraWu, J. & Wang, 1994
  • MyrmocamelusForel, 1914
  • MyrmolophusEmery, 1920
  • MyrmosagaForel, 1912
  • MyrmoturbaForel, 1912
  • NeocolobopsisBorgmeier, 1928
  • NeomyrmamblysWheeler, W.M., 1921
  • OrthonotusAshmead, 1905
  • PaleosminthurusPierce & Gibron, 1962
  • ParacolobopsisEmery, 1920
  • ShanwangellaZhang, J., 1989

Carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) are large ants (workers 7 to 13 mm or 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 in) indigenous to many forested parts of the world. [2]

Contents

They build nests inside wood, consisting of galleries chewed out with their mandibles or jaws, preferably in dead, damp wood. However, unlike termites, they do not consume wood, [3] but instead discard a material that resembles sawdust outside their nest. Sometimes, carpenter ants hollow out sections of trees. They also commonly infest wooden buildings and structures, causing a widespread problem: they are a major cause of structural damage. Nevertheless, their ability to excavate wood helps in forest decomposition. The genus includes over 1,000 species. [4] They also farm aphids. In their farming, the ants protect the aphids from predators (usually other insects) while they excrete a sugary fluid called honeydew, which the ants get by stroking the aphids with their antennae.

Description

Carpenter ants are generally large ants: workers are 4–7 mm long in small species and 7–13 mm in large species, queens are 9–20 mm long and males are 5–13 mm long. The bases of the antennae are separated from the clypeal border by a distance of at least the antennal scape's maximum diameter. The mesosoma in profile usually forms a continuous curve from the pronotum through to the propodeum. [5] [6]


Habitat

Carpenter ant cleaning antennae Camponotus flavomarginatus ant.jpg
Carpenter ant cleaning antennae

Carpenter ant species reside both outdoors and indoors in moist, decaying, or hollow wood, most commonly in forest environments. They cut "galleries" into the wood grain to provide passageways to allow for movement between different sections of the nest. Certain parts of a house, such as around and under windows, roof eaves, decks and porches, are more likely to be infested by carpenter ants because these areas are most vulnerable to moisture. [7]

Carpenter ants carrying a dead bee Carpenter ants carrying a dead bee.jpg
Carpenter ants carrying a dead bee

Carpenter ants have been known to construct extensive underground tunneling systems. These systems often end at some food source – often aphid colonies, where the ants extract and feed on honeydew. These tunneling systems also often exist in trees. The colonies typically include a central "parent" colony surrounded and supplemented by smaller satellite colonies. [8]

Food

A major worker of Camponotus sp. Camponotus sp Tanaemyrmex.jpg
A major worker of Camponotus sp.

Carpenter ants are considered both predators and scavengers. These ants are foragers that typically eat parts of other dead insects or substances derived from other insects. Common foods for them include insect parts, "honeydew" produced by aphids, and extrafloral nectar from plants. They are also known for eating other sugary liquids such as honey, syrup, or juices. Carpenter ants can increase the survivability of aphids when they tend them.

Most species of carpenter ants forage at night. When foraging, they usually collect and consume dead insects. Some species less commonly collect live insects. When they discover a dead insect, workers surround it and extract its body fluids to be carried back to the nest. The remaining chitin-based shell is left behind. Occasionally, the ants bring the chitinous head of the insect back to the nest, where they also extract its inner tissue. [9] The ants can forage individually or in small or large groups, though they often opt to do so individually. Different colonies in close proximity may have overlapping foraging regions, although they typically do not assist each other in foraging. Their main food sources normally include proteins and carbohydrates. [10] Instances of carpenter ants bleeding Chinese elm trees for the sap have been observed in northern Arizona. These instances may be rare, as the colonies vastly exceeded the typical size of carpenter ant colonies elsewhere. [11] When workers find food sources, they communicate this information to the rest of the nest. They use biochemical pheromones to mark the shortest path that can be taken from the nest to the source. When a sizable number of workers follows this trail, the strength of the cue increases and a foraging trail is established. This ends when the food source is depleted. The workers will then feed the queen and the larvae by consuming the food they have found, and regurgitating the food at the nest. Foraging trails can be either under or above ground. [12]

Although carpenter ants do not tend to be extremely aggressive, they have developed mechanisms to maximize what they take from a food source when that same food source is also visited by competing organisms. This is accomplished in different ways. Sometimes they colonize an area near a relatively static food supply. More often, they develop a systemic way to visit the food source, with alternating trips by different individual ants or groups. This allows them to decrease the gains of intruders because the intruders tend to visit in a scattered, random, and unorganized manner. The ants, however, visit the sources systematically so that they reduce the average crop remaining. They tend to visit more resource-dense food areas in an attempt to minimize resource availability for others. That is, the more systematic the foraging behavior of the ants, the more random that of its competitors. [13]

Contrary to popular belief, carpenter ants do not actually eat wood, as they are unable to digest cellulose. They only create tunnels and nests within it. [14]

Some carpenter ant species can obtain nitrogen by feeding on urine or urine-stained sand. This may be beneficial in nitrogen-limited environments. [15]

Symbionts

All ants in this genus, and some related genera, possess an obligate bacterial endosymbiont called Blochmannia . [16] This bacterium has a small genome, and retains genes to biosynthesize essential amino acids and other nutrients. This suggests the bacterium plays a role in ant nutrition. Many Camponotus species are also infected with Wolbachia , another endosymbiont that is widespread across insect groups. Wolbachia is associated with the nurse cells in the queen's ovaries in the species Camponotus textor, which results in the worker larva being infected. [17]

Behavior and ecology

Nesting

Carpenter ant colony in an old fir stump
Carpenter ants in a tree Carpenter ants tree.jpg
Carpenter ants in a tree
Pileated Woodpecker holes in a tree occupied by carpenter ants Holes in a tree from carpenter ants.jpg
Pileated Woodpecker holes in a tree occupied by carpenter ants
Sawdust like shavings from carpenter ants Sawdust like shavings from carpenter ants.jpg
Sawdust like shavings from carpenter ants

Carpenter ants work to build the nests that house eggs in environments with usually high humidity due to their sensitivity to environmental humidity. These nests are called primary nests. Satellite nests are constructed once the primary nest is established and has begun to mature. Residents of satellite nests include older larvae, pupae, and some winged individuals, such as male ants (drones), or future queen ants. Only eggs, the newly hatched larvae, workers, and the queen reside in the primary nests. As satellite nests do not have environmentally sensitive eggs, the ants can construct them in rather diverse locations that can actually be relatively dry. [18] Some species, like Camponotus vagus , build the nest in a dry place, usually in wood.

Nuptial flight

When conditions are warm and humid, winged males and females participate in a nuptial flight. They emerge from their satellite nests and females mate with a number of males while in flight. The males die after mating. These newly fertilized queens discard their wings and search for new areas to establish primary nests. The queens build new nests and deposit around 20 eggs, nurturing them as they grow until worker ants emerge. The worker ants eventually assist her in caring for the brood as she lays more eggs. After a few years, reproductive winged ants are born, allowing for the making of new colonies. Again, satellite nests will be established and the process will repeat itself. [18]

Relatedness

Relatedness is the probability that a gene in one individual is an identical copy, by descent, of a gene in another individual. It is essentially a measure of how closely related two individuals are with respect to a gene. It is quantified by the coefficient of relatedness, which is a number between zero and one. The larger the value, the more two individuals are "related". Carpenter ants are social hymenopteran insects. This means the relatedness between offspring and parents is disproportionate. Females are more closely related to their sisters than they are to their offspring. Between full sisters, the coefficient of relatedness is r > 0.75 (due to their haplodiploid genetic system).[ citation needed ] Between parent and offspring, the coefficient of relatedness is r = 0.5, because, given the event in meiosis, a certain gene has a 50% chance of being passed on to the offspring. The level of relatedness is an important dictator of individual interactions.[ citation needed ]

Genetic diversity

Eusocial insects tend to present low genetic diversity within colonies, which can increase with the co-occurrence of multiple queens (polygyny) or with multiple mating by a single queen (polyandry). [19] Distinct reproductive strategies may generate similar patterns of genetic diversity in ants. [19]

Kin recognition

According to Hamilton's rule for relatedness, for relative-specific interactions to occur, such as kin altruism, a high level of relatedness is necessary between two individuals. Carpenter ants, like many social insect species, have mechanisms by which individuals determine whether others are nestmates or not. They are useful because they explain the presence or absence of altruistic behavior between individuals. They also act as evolutionary strategies to help prevent incest and promote kin selection. [20] Social carpenter ants recognize their kin in many ways. These methods of recognition are largely chemical in nature, and include environmental odors, pheromones, "transferable labels", and labels from the queen that are distributed to and among nest members. [21] Because they have a chemical basis for emission and recognition, odors are useful because many ants can detect such changes in their environment through their antennae. [22] This allows acceptance of nestmates and rejection of non-nestmates.[ citation needed ]

The process of recognition for carpenter ants requires two events. First, a cue must be present on a "donor animal". These cues are called "labels". Next, the receiving animal must be able to recognize and process the cue. In order for an individual carpenter ant to be recognized as a nestmate, it must, as an adult, go through specific interactions with older members of the nest. [21] This process is also necessary in order for the ant to recognize and distinguish other individuals. If these interactions do not occur in the beginning of adult life, the ant will be unable to be distinguished as a nestmate and unable to distinguish nestmates. [23]

Kin altruism

Recognition allows for the presence of kin-specific interactions, such as kin altruism. Altruistic individuals increase other individuals' fitness at the expense of their own. Carpenter ants perform altruistic actions toward their nestmates so that their shared genes are propagated more readily or more often. In many social insect species like these ants, many worker animals are sterile and do not have the ability to reproduce. As a result, they forgo reproduction to donate energy and help the fertile individuals reproduce.[ citation needed ]

Pheromones

As in most other social insect species, individual interaction is heavily influenced by the queen. The queen can influence individuals with odors called pheromones, which can have different effects. Some pheromones have been known to calm workers, while others have been known to excite them. Pheromonal cues from ovipositing queens have a stronger effect on worker ants than those of virgin queens. [24]

Social immunity

In many social insect species, social behavior can increase the disease resistance of animals. This phenomenon, called social immunity, exists in carpenter ants. It is mediated through the feeding of other individuals by regurgitation. The regurgitate can have antimicrobial activity, which would be spread amongst members of the colony. Some proteases with antimicrobial activity have been found to exist in regurgitated material. Communal sharing of immune response capability is likely to play a large role in colonial maintenance during highly pathogenic periods. [25]

Polygyny

Polygyny often is associated with many social insect species, and usually is characterized by limited mating flights, small queen size, and other characteristics. However, carpenter ants have "extensive" mating flights and relatively large queens, distinguishing them from polygynous species. Carpenter ants are described as oligogynous because they have a number of fertile queens which are intolerant of each other and must therefore spread to different areas of the nest. Some aggressive interactions have been known to take place between queens, but not necessarily through workers. Queens become aggressive mainly to other queens if they trespass on a marked territory. Queens in a given colony can work together in brood care [8] and the workers tend to experience higher rates of survival in colonies with multiple queens. Some researchers still subscribe to the notion that carpenter ant colonies are only monogynous. [26]

Exploding ants

In at least nine Southeast Asian species of the Cylindricus complex, including Camponotus saundersi , workers feature greatly enlarged mandibular glands that run the entire length of the ant's body. They can release their contents suicidally by performing autothysis, thereby rupturing the ant's body and spraying toxic substance from the head, which gives these species the common name "exploding ants". [27] [28] [29] The enlarged mandibular gland, which is many times the size of that of a normal ant, produces a glue. The glue bursts out and entangles and immobilizes all nearby victims. [30] [31]

The termite species Globitermes sulphureus has a similar defensive system. [32]

Selected species

C. pennsylvanicus, winged male Carpenter ant drone wiki.jpg
C. pennsylvanicus, winged male
C. crispulus queen Camponotus crispulus queen ant.jpg
C. crispulus queen
Wood damage by C. herculeanus Holzschaden.jpg
Wood damage by C. herculeanus
This structural board was destroyed by carpenter ants. They left the dense "late wood" of each growth ring intact, to use as galleries. CarpenterAntDamage board.jpg
This structural board was destroyed by carpenter ants. They left the dense "late wood" of each growth ring intact, to use as galleries.
A closeup of carpenter ant created galleries. Carpenter Ant Damage.JPG
A closeup of carpenter ant created galleries.

Relationship with humans

One of the most familiar species associated with human habitation in the United States is the black carpenter ant (Camponotus pennsylvanicus).[ citation needed ]

As pests

Carpenter ants can damage wood used in the construction of buildings. They can leave behind a sawdust-like material called frass that provides clues to their nesting location. Carpenter ant galleries are smooth and very different from termite-damaged areas, which have mud packed into the hollowed-out areas. Carpenter ants can be identified by the general presence of one upward protruding node, looking like a spike, at the "waist" attachment between the thorax and abdomen (petiole). [34] Control involves application of insecticides in various forms including dusts and liquids. The dusts are injected directly into galleries and voids where the carpenter ants are living. The liquids are applied in areas where foraging ants are likely to pick the material up and spread the poison to the colony upon returning. [35]

As food

Honeypot ants in Northern Territory, Australia Honey Ants (7344580116).jpg
Honeypot ants in Northern Territory, Australia

Carpenter ants and their larvae are eaten in various parts of the world. In Australia, the Honeypot ant ( Camponotus inflatus ) is regularly eaten raw by Indigenous Australians. [36] It is a particular favourite source of sugar for Australian Aborigines living in arid regions, partially digging up their nests instead of digging them up entirely, in order to preserve this food source. [37] [38] The honey also has antimicrobial properties which the aboriginal population use to their advantage to cure colds. [39]

In North America, lumbermen during the early years in Maine would eat carpenter ants to prevent scurvy, [40] and in John Muir's publication, First Summer in the Sierra , Muir notes that the Northern Paiute people of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants. [41] In Africa, carpenter ants are among a vast number of species that are consumed by the San people. [42]

Related Research Articles

<i>Formica rufa</i> Species of ant

Formica rufa, also known as the red wood ant, southern wood ant, or horse ant, is a boreal member of the Formica rufa group of ants, and is the type species for that group, being described already by Linnaeus. It is native to Eurasia, with a recorded distribution stretching from the middle of Scandinavia to the northern Iberia and Anatolia, and from Great Britain to Lake Baikal, with unconfirmed reportings of it also to the Russian Far East. There are claims that it can be found in North America, but this is not confirmed in specialised literature, and no recent publication where North American wood ants are listed mentions it as present, while records from North America are all listed as dubious or unconfirmed in a record compilation. Workers' head and thorax are colored red and the abdomen brownish-black, usually with a dorsal dark patches on the head and promensonotum, although some individuals may be more uniform reddish and even have some red on the part of the gastern facing the body. In order to separate them from closely related species, specimens needs to be inspected under magnification, where difference in hairyness are among the telling characteristics, with Formica rufa being more hairy than per example Formica polyctena but less hairy than Formica lugubris. Workers are polymorphic, measuring 4.5–9 mm in length. They have large mandibles, and like many other ant species, they are able to spray formic acid from their abdomens as a defence. Formic acid was first extracted in 1671 by the English naturalist John Ray by distilling a large number of crushed ants of this species. Adult wood ants primarily feed on honeydew from aphids. Some groups form large networks of connected nests with multiple queen colonies, while others have single-queen colonies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharaoh ant</span> Species of ant

The pharaoh ant is a small (2 mm) yellow or light brown, almost transparent ant notorious for being a major indoor nuisance pest, especially in hospitals. A cryptogenic species, it has now been introduced to virtually every area of the world, including Europe, the Americas, Australasia and Southeast Asia. It is a major pest in the United States, Australia, and Europe. The ant's common name is said to be derived from the mistaken belief that it was one of the biblical Egyptian (pharaonic) plagues.

<i>Tapinoma sessile</i> Species of ant

Tapinoma sessile is a species of small ant that goes by the common names odorous house ant, sugar ant, stink ant, and coconut ant. Their colonies are polydomous and polygynous. Like many social insects, T. sessile employs complex foraging strategies, allocates food depending on environmental conditions, and engages in competition with other insects.

<i>Lasioglossum malachurum</i> Species of bee

Lasioglossum malachurum, the sharp-collared furrow bee, is a small European halictid bee. This species is obligately eusocial, with queens and workers, though the differences between the castes are not nearly as extreme as in honey bees. Early taxonomists mistakenly assigned the worker females to a different species from the queens. They are small, shiny, mostly black bees with off-white hair bands at the bases of the abdominal segments. L. malachurum is one of the more extensively studied species in the genus Lasioglossum, also known as sweat bees. Researchers have discovered that the eusocial behavior in colonies of L. malachurum varies significantly dependent upon the region of Europe in which each colony is located.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Banded sugar ant</span> Species of carpenter ant (Camponotus consobrinus)

The banded sugar ant, also known as the sugar ant, is a species of ant native to Australia. A member of the genus Camponotus in the subfamily Formicinae, it was described by German entomologist Wilhelm Ferdinand Erichson in 1842. Its common name refers to the ant's liking for sugar and sweet food, as well as the distinctive orange-brown band that wraps around its gaster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meat ant</span> Common Australian ant

The meat ant, also known as the gravel ant or southern meat ant, is a species of ant endemic to Australia. A member of the genus Iridomyrmex in the subfamily Dolichoderinae, it was described by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858. The meat ant is associated with many common names due to its appearance, nest-building behaviour and abundance, of which its specific name, purpureus, refers to its coloured appearance. It is among the best-known species of ant found throughout Australia; it occurs in almost all states and territories except for Tasmania. Its enormous distribution, aggression and ecological importance have made this ant a dominant species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black carpenter ant</span> Species of American ant (Camponotus pennsylvanicus)

The black carpenter ant is one of the largest and most common species of carpenter ant native to the central and eastern United States as well as eastern Canada.

<i>Formica polyctena</i> Species of ant

Formica polyctena is a species of European red wood ant in the genus Formica and large family Formicidae. The species was first described by Arnold Förster in 1850. The latin species name polyctena is from Greek and literally means 'many cattle', referring to the species' habit of farming aphids for honeydew food. It is found in many European countries. It is a eusocial species, that has a distinct caste system of sterile workers and a very small reproductive caste. The ants have a genetic based cue that allow them to identify which other ants are members of their nest and which are foreign individuals. When facing these types of foreign invaders the F. polyctena has a system to activate an alarm. It can release pheromones which can trigger an alarm response in other nearby ants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eusociality</span> Highest level of animal sociality a species can attain

Eusociality is the highest level of organization of sociality. It is defined by the following characteristics: cooperative brood care, overlapping generations within a colony of adults, and a division of labor into reproductive and non-reproductive groups. The division of labor creates specialized behavioral groups within an animal society which are sometimes referred to as 'castes'. Eusociality is distinguished from all other social systems because individuals of at least one caste usually lose the ability to perform behaviors characteristic of individuals in another caste. Eusocial colonies can be viewed as superorganisms.

<i>Ropalidia marginata</i> Species of insect

Ropalidia marginata is an Old World species of paper wasp. It is primitively eusocial, not showing the same bias in brood care seen in other social insects with greater asymmetry in relatedness. The species employs a variety of colony founding strategies, sometimes with single founders and sometimes in groups of variable number. The queen does not use physical dominance to control workers; there is evidence of pheromones being used to suppress other female workers from overtaking queenship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worker policing</span> Insects destroying eggs not laid by queen

Worker policing is a behavior seen in colonies of social hymenopterans whereby worker females eat or remove eggs that have been laid by other workers rather than those laid by a queen. Worker policing ensures that the offspring of the queen will predominate in the group. In certain species of bees, ants and wasps, workers or the queen may also act aggressively towards fertile workers. Worker policing has been suggested as a form of coercion to promote the evolution of altruistic behavior in eusocial insect societies.

<i>Formica truncorum</i> Species of ant

Formica truncorum is a species of wood ant from the genus Formica. It is distributed across a variety of locations worldwide, including central Europe and Japan. Workers can range from 3.5 to 9.0mm and are uniquely characterized by small hairs covering their entire bodies. Like all other ants, F. truncorum is eusocial and demonstrates many cooperative behaviors that are unique to its order. Colonies are either monogynous, with one queen, or polygynous, with many queens, and these two types of colonies differ in many characteristics.

<i>Formica incerta</i> Species of ant

Formica incerta is a species of ant found in eastern North America. It is the most common species of Formica in many areas, and excavates underground nests with small entrance holes. Its diet includes nectar produced by extrafloral nectaries and honeydew, which it obtains from aphids and treehoppers. It is the main host for the slave-making ant Polyergus lucidus. F. incerta was first described by Italian entomologist Carlo Emery in 1893. Its specific name comes from the Latin incertus meaning "uncertain" and seems particularly apt given the subsequent uncertainty as to the validity of the species and the difficulty in distinguishing this ant from other species living in the same area.

<i>Blochmannia</i>

Blochmannia is a genus of symbiotic bacteria found in carpenter ant. There are over 1000 species of these ants and, as of 2014, of the over 30 species of carpenter ant that have been investigated, all contain some form of Blochmannia. The bacteria filled cells currently known as members of the genus Blochmannia were first discovered by zoologist F. Blochmann in the ovaries and midguts of insects in the 1880s. In 2000 Candidatus Blochmannia was proposed as its own genus.

<i>Polistes biglumis</i> Species of wasp

Polistes biglumis is a species of social wasp within Polistes, the most common genus of paper wasp. It is distinguished mainly by its tendency to reside in montane climates in meadows or alpine areas. Selection pressure from the wasp's environment has led to several idiosyncrasies of its behavior and lifecycle with respect to its relative species in the genus Polistes. It alone among paper wasps is often polyandrous. In addition, it has a truncated nesting season that gives rise to unique competitive dynamics among females of the species. P. biglumis wasps use an odor-based recognition system that is the basis for all wasp-to-wasp interaction of the species. The wasp's lifecycle is highly intertwined with that of Polistes atrimandibularis, an obligate social parasite wasp that frequently invades the combs of P. biglumis wasps.

<i>Polybia sericea</i> Species of wasp

Polybia sericea is a social, tropical wasp of the family Vespidae that can be found in South America. It founds its colonies by swarming migrations, and feeds on nectar and arthropods.

<i>Camponotus herculeanus</i> Species of ant known as the Hercules ant

Camponotus herculeanus is a species of ant in the genus Camponotus, the carpenter ants, occurring in Northern Eurasia, from Norway to Eastern Siberia, and North America. First described as Formica herculeana by Linnaeus in 1758, the species was moved to Camponotus by Mayr in 1861.

<i>Camponotus floridanus</i> Species of ant known as the Florida carpenter ant

Camponotus floridanus, or Florida carpenter ant, is a species of ant in the genus Camponotus. First described as Formica floridana by Buckley in 1866, the species was moved to Camponotus by Mayr in 1886. The ant is widespread in Florida and occurs as far north as North Carolina and as far west as Mississippi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-headed sugar ant</span> Species of carpenter ant (Camponotus nigriceps)

The black-headed sugar ant, also known as the brown sugar ant, is a species of Formicinae ant endemic to Australia. Found throughout most states, the species is a member of the genus Camponotus, a cosmopolitan genus of ants commonly known as carpenter ants. It was formally described and named by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858. These ants are characterised by their black head, reddish-brown mesosoma and black gaster, which can change in colour.

<i>Camponotus fellah</i> Species of carpenter ant

Camponotus fellah is a species of ant in the subfamily Formicinae found across the Middle East and North Africa. This species was formally described by Dalla Torre in 1893. A C. fellah queen holds the record for Israeli ant longevity, surviving for 26 years (1983-2009) in a laboratory environment.

References

  1. ↑ Johnson, Norman F. (December 19, 2007). "Camponotus Mayr". Hymenoptera Name Server version 1.5. Columbus, Ohio, USA: Ohio State University. Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
  2. ↑ Cranshaw, Whitney; Richard Redak (2013). Bugs Rule!: An Introduction to the World of Insects. Princeton Univ. Press. p. 329. ISBN   978-1-4008-4892-8.
  3. ↑ "Carpenter ants: Insects: University of Minnesota Extension". Extension.umn.edu. 2012-10-15. Archived from the original on 2012-06-09. Retrieved 2015-05-12.
  4. ↑ Feldhaar, H.; Straka, Josef; Krischke, M; Berthold, K; Stoll, S; Mueller, M.J.; Gross, R; et al. (2007). "Nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont Blochmannia". BMC Biology. 5 (1): 48. doi: 10.1186/1741-7007-5-48 . PMC   2206011 . PMID   17971224.
  5. ↑ "Genus Camponotus - Carpenter Ants". bugguide.net. Retrieved 2022-11-23.
  6. ↑ "Key to North American Genera of Formicinae - AntWiki". antwiki.org. Retrieved 2022-11-23.
  7. ↑ "Carpenter Ant Damage In The Home - Four Common Areas". EnviroPest Solutions. 13 March 2021.
  8. 1 2 Colony Size and Polygyny in Carpenter Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Roger D. Akre, Laurel D. Hansen and Elizabeth A. Myhre Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society , Vol. 67, No. 1 (January 1994), pp. 1–9
  9. ↑ Pricer, John. The Life History of the Carpenter Ant. Biological Bulletin , Vol. 14, No. 3 (Feb., 1908), pp. 177-218
  10. ↑ Yamamoto, Marcela & Del-Claro, Kleber (2008). "Natural history and foraging behavior of the carpenter ant Camponotus sericeiventris Guérin, 1838 (Formicinae, Campotonini) in the Brazilian tropical savanna". Acta Ethologica. 11 (2): 55–65. doi:10.1007/s10211-008-0041-6. S2CID   37065825.
  11. ↑ B.Colyott, firsthand observation over a several year period.
  12. ↑ Dreisig, H. (2000). "Defense by exploitation in the Florida carpenter ant, Camponotus floridanus, at an extrafloral nectar resource". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 47 (4): 274–279. doi:10.1007/s002650050666. S2CID   44043578.
  13. ↑ "Carpenter Ants: 3 Consistent Patterns That Make Their Competition's Foraging More Unpredictable". 1999. Archived from the original on 2016-09-15. Retrieved 2016-09-03.
  14. ↑ Hahn, Jeff. "Carpenter Ants": Insects: University of Minnesota Extension. N.p., n.d. Web. October 1, 2013.
  15. ↑ Petit, Sophie; Stonor, M. Bernard; Weyland, John J.; Gibbs, Joan; Amato, Bianca (2020). "Camponotus ants mine sand for vertebrate urine to extract nitrogen". Austral Ecology. 45 (2): 168–176. Bibcode:2020AusEc..45..168P. doi:10.1111/aec.12840. S2CID   214448821.
  16. ↑ Feldhaar, Heike; Straka, Josef; Krischke, Markus; Berthold, Kristina; Stoll, Sascha; Mueller, Martin J; Gross, Roy (2007). "Nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont Blochmannia". BMC Biology. 5 (1): 48. doi: 10.1186/1741-7007-5-48 . PMC   2206011 . PMID   17971224.
  17. ↑ Ramalho, Manuela Oliviera; Vieira, Alexsandro Santana; Pereira, Mayara Cristina; Moreau, Corrie Saux; Bueno, Odair Correa (2018). "Transovarian Transmission of Blochmannia and Wolbachia Endosymbionts in the Neotropical Weaver Ant Camponotus textor (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)". Current Microbiology. 75 (7): 866–873. doi:10.1007/s00284-018-1459-3. hdl: 11449/175908 . PMID   29468305. S2CID   3387710 . Retrieved 2021-06-09.
  18. 1 2 Pararas — Carayannis, Carolyn. "Carpenter Ants". Colony Behaviors of Carpenter Ants. Web. October 1, 2013.
  19. 1 2 Azevedo-Silva, Marianne; Mori, Gustavo M.; Carvalho, Carolina S.; Côrtes, Marina C.; Souza, Anete P.; Oliveira, Paulo S. (2020). "Breeding systems and genetic diversity in tropical carpenter ant colonies: different strategies for similar outcomes in Brazilian Cerrado savanna". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 190 (3): 1020–1035. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa035.
  20. ↑ Crozier, Ross H. (1988). "Kin Recognition Using Innate Labels: A Central Role for Piggybacking?". Invertebrate Historecognition. pp. 143–156. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1053-2_11. ISBN   978-1-4612-8311-9.
  21. 1 2 Carlin, Norman F.; Schwartz, Peter H. (July 1989). "Pre-imaginal experience and nestmate brood recognition in the carpenter ant, Camponotus floridanus". Animal Behaviour. 38 (1): 89–95. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(89)80068-5. S2CID   53150854.
  22. ↑ Carlin, N. F.; Hölldobler, B. (2 December 1983). "Nestmate and kin recognition in interspecific mixed colonies of ants". Science. 222 (4627): 1027–1029. Bibcode:1983Sci...222.1027C. doi:10.1126/science.222.4627.1027. PMID   17776248. S2CID   38728014.
  23. ↑ Morel, Laurence; Vander Meer, Robert K.; Lavine, Barry K. (1988). "Ontogeny of nestmate recognition cues in the red carpenter ant (Camponotus floridanus)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 22 (3): 175. doi:10.1007/BF00300567. S2CID   43987360.
  24. ↑ H.G. Fowler and R. B. Roberts Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, Vol. 55, No. 3 (July 1982), pp. 568–570
  25. ↑ Hamilton, C; Lejeune, B. T.; Rosengaus, R. B. (2011). "Trophallaxis and prophylaxis: social immunity in the carpenter ant Camponotus pennsylvanicus". Biology Letters. 7 (1): 89–92. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0466. PMC   3030872 . PMID   20591850.
  26. ↑ Gadau, Jürgen; Gertsch, Pia J.; Heinze, Jürgen; Pamilo, Pekka; Hölldobler, Bert (1998). "Oligogyny by unrelated queens in the carpenter ant, Camponotus ligniperdus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 44 (1): 23–33. doi:10.1007/s002650050511. JSTOR   4601542. S2CID   20368901.
  27. ↑ Jones, T.H.; Clark, D.A.; Edwards, A.A.; Davidson, D.W.; Spande, T.F.; Snelling; Roy, R. (2004). "The Chemistry of Exploding Ants, Camponotus spp. (Cylindricus complex)"". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 30 (8): 1479–1492. Bibcode:2004JCEco..30.1479J. doi:10.1023/B:JOEC.0000042063.01424.28. PMID   15537154. S2CID   23756265.
  28. ↑ Emery, Carlo (1889). Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e regioni vicine. XX. Formiche di Birmania e del Tenasserim raccolte da Leonardo Fea (1885–87).Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria (Genova) 2 7(27): 485–520. [PDF]
  29. ↑ "Utahn enters world of exploding ants". Deseret News. September 11, 2002. Archived from the original on July 9, 2010. Retrieved September 27, 2009. University of Utah graduate student Steve Cook explained "They've been called kamikaze ants by other researchers because they tend to explode or self-destruct when they're attacked or harassed in any way."
  30. ↑ Vittachi, Nury (June 6, 2008). "The Malaysian ant teaches us all how to go out with a bang". Daily Star. Dhaka.
  31. ↑ Ridley, Mark (1995). Animal Behaviour (Second ed.). Blackwell Publishing. p. 3. ISBN   0-86542-390-3 . Retrieved 2009-09-26.
  32. ↑ Robert S. Anderson; Richard Beatty; Stuart Church (January 2003). Insects and Spiders of the World. Vol. 9. Marshall Cavendish. p. 543. ISBN   978-0-7614-7334-3.
  33. ↑ Bonasio, R.; et al. (November 12, 2011). "Genome data from the Florida carpenter ant (Camponotus floridanus)". GigaScience. doi: 10.5524/100018 .
  34. ↑ Davis, Ryan; Young, Deborah; Johnson, Kelsie; Armenta, Roberta; Berry, Genevieve. "Common Structural and Health-Related Pests of Utah" (PDF). USU School Integrated Pest Management. Utah State University Extension and Colorado State University Extension. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
  35. ↑ "Maxforce Carpenter Ant Bait Gel Directions for Use". Archived from the original on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 14 Aug 2018.
  36. ↑ Capinera 2008, p. 1342.
  37. ↑ Resh & Cardé 2009, p. 381.
  38. ↑ Gullan & Cranston 2010, p. 13.
  39. ↑ Dong, Andrew Z.; Cokcetin, Nural; Carter, Dee A.; Fernandes, Kenya E. (July 2023). "Unique antimicrobial activity in honey from the Australian honeypot ant (Camponotus inflatus)". PeerJ. 11: e15645. doi: 10.7717/peerj.15645 . PMC   10386826 . PMID   37520253.
  40. ↑ Srivastava, S.K.; Babu, Naresh; Pandey, Hema (2009). "Traditional insect bioprospecting-As human food and medicine" (PDF). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 8 (4): 485–494. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
  41. ↑ Bequaert J (1921). "Insects as food: How they have augmented the food supply of mankind in early and recent times". Natural History Journal. 21: 191–200.
  42. ↑ Morris 2006, p. 52.

Cited texts

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.