Poorly received by critics when released, Cruising performed moderately at the box office. The shooting and promotion were dogged by gay rights protesters who believed that the film stigmatized them. The film is also notable for its open-ended finale, which was criticized by Robin Wood and Bill Krohn as further complicating what they felt were the director's incoherent changes to the rough cut and synopsis, as well as other production issues.[2]
Plot
In New York City, amidst a hot summer, body parts of men are showing up in the Hudson River. The police suspect it to be the work of a serial killer who is picking up gay men at West Village bars such as the Eagle's Nest, the Ramrod and the Cock Pit, and taking them to cheap rooming houses or motels, tying them up and stabbing them to death.
Captain Edelson asks officer Steve Burns, who is slim and dark-haired like the victims, to go deep undercover into the world of gay S&M and leather bars in the Meatpacking District to track down the killer. Burns accepts the assignment, viewing the high-profile case as a way to rapidly advance his career. He rents an apartment in the area and befriends neighbor Ted Bailey, a struggling young gay playwright. Burns's undercover work takes a toll on his relationship with his girlfriend Nancy due to his inability to tell her the details of his current assignment and his developing friendship with Ted, who is having relationship problems with his jealous and overbearing dancer boyfriend Gregory.
Burns mistakenly compels the police to interrogate waiter Skip Lee, who is intimidated and beaten to coerce a confession before the police discover that Skip's fingerprints do not match the killer's. Burns is disturbed by the brutality, and tells Captain Edelson that he did not agree to the assignment so that people could be beaten simply for being gay. Exhausted by the undercover work, Burns is close to quitting, but Edelson convinces him to continue the investigation. Edelson, in turn, reprimands the officers who interrogated Skip.
Following a new lead, Burns investigates students at Columbia University who studied with one of the previous victims, a college professor. Burns thinks that he has found the serial killer: Stuart Richards, a gay music graduate student who has schizophrenia. He breaks into his apartment and discovers a box of letters to his father.
Burns meets Richards in Morningside Park and cruises him for sex. After Burns asks him to pull his pants down, Richards tries to stab him, but Burns stabs him in the side, incapacitating him. Burns takes Richards into custody, where his fingerprints are a match for those discovered at one of the stabbings.
Shortly afterward, Ted's mutilated body is found. The police dismiss the murder as a lover's quarrel turned violent and put out an arrest warrant for Gregory, with whom Burns had an earlier confrontation due to Gregory's jealousy.
Burns, now promoted to detective, moves back in with Nancy. As Burns shaves his beard in the bathroom, Nancy dresses in his leather jacket, cap and aviator sunglasses—exactly what the killer wore. Burns stares at himself in the mirror.
Philip D'Antoni, who had produced Friedkin's 1971 film The French Connection, approached Friedkin with the idea of directing a film based on The New York Times reporter Gerald Walker's 1970 novel Cruising, about a serial killer targeting New York City's gay community. Friedkin was not particularly interested in the project. D'Antoni tried to attach Steven Spielberg, but they were not able to interest a studio.
A few years later, Jerry Weintraub brought the idea back to Friedkin, who was still not interested. However, Friedkin changed his mind following a series of unsolved killings in gay leather bars in the 1970s and the articles written about the murders by Village Voice journalist Arthur Bell. Friedkin also knew a police officer named Randy Jurgensen, who had gone into the same sort of deep cover that Pacino's Steve Burns did to investigate an earlier series of gay murders; Paul Bateson, a doctor's assistant who had appeared in Friedkin's 1973 film The Exorcist was implicated (but never charged) in six of the leather bar murders, while being prosecuted for another murder. All of these factors gave Friedkin the angle he wanted to pursue in making the film.[3] Jurgensen and Bateson served as film consultants, as did Sonny Grosso, who earlier had consulted with Friedkin on The French Connection. Jurgensen and Grosso appear in bit parts in the film.
In his research, Friedkin worked with members of the Mafia, who at the time owned many of the city's gay bars.[4] Al Pacino was not Friedkin's first choice for the lead; Richard Gere had expressed a strong interest in the part, and Friedkin had opened negotiations with Gere's agent. Gere was Friedkin's choice because he believed that Gere would bring an androgynous quality to the role that Pacino could not.[5]
The film was intended to depict gay cruising as it existed at the Mineshaft, which does appear in the novel. However, that bar is not named in the movie because it would not allow filming.[6] Scenes from the movie were instead filmed at the Hellfire Club, which was decorated to resemble the Mineshaft. Regulars from the Mineshaft also appeared as extras,[7] and scenes were shot in streets and other locations near the Mineshaft.[8] Additionally, Pacino visited the Mineshaft while researching his role.
The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) originally gave Cruising an X rating. Friedkin claims that he presented the film to the MPAA board "50 times" at a cost of $50,000 and deleted 40 minutes of footage from the original cut before he secured an R rating.[3] The deleted footage, according to Friedkin, consisted entirely of footage from the clubs, in which portions of the film were shot and consisted of "[a]bsolutely graphic sexuality... that material showed the most graphic homosexuality with Pacino watching, and with the intimation that he may have been participating".[4]
In some discussions, Friedkin claims that the missing 40 minutes had no effect on the story nor the characterizations,[3] but in others, he states that the footage created "mysterious twists and turns (which [the film] no longer takes)"; that the additional footage made the suspicion that Pacino's character may have become a killer more clear; and that the missing footage simultaneously made the film both more and less ambiguous. When Friedkin sought to restore the missing footage for the film's DVD release, he discovered that United Artists no longer possessed it. He believes that UA destroyed it.[3] Some obscured sexual activity remains visible in the film as released,[9] and Friedkin intercut a few frames of gay pornography into the first scene, in which a murder is depicted.
This movie represents the only film soundtrack work by the punk rock band the Germs. They recorded six songs for the film, of which one, "Lion's Share", appeared. The cut "Shakedown, Breakdown" was written and recorded specially for the film by cult band Rough Trade.[10] Soundtrack director Jack Nitzsche had initially attempted to include two songs—"Endless Night" and "Devil's Sidewalk"—by Graham Parker and the Rumour in the film, but legal issues prevented the songs from being used.[11] The songs appeared on Parker's 1980 album The Up Escalator.
Friedkin asked gay author John Rechy, some of whose works are set in the same milieu as the film, to screen Cruising before its release. Rechy had written an essay defending Friedkin's right to make the film, but not defending the overall film. At Rechy's suggestion, Friedkin deleted a scene showing the Gay Liberation slogan "We Are Everywhere" as graffiti on a wall before the first body part is pulled from the river, and added a disclaimer:[12]
This film is not intended as an indictment of the homosexual world. It is set in one small segment of that world, which is not meant to be representative of the whole.[13]
Friedkin later claimed that it was the MPAA and United Artists that required the disclaimer, calling it "part of the dark bargain that was made to get the film released at all" and "a sop to organized gay rights groups".[14] Friedkin claimed that no one involved in making the film thought that it would be considered as representative of the entire gay community, but gay film historian Vito Russo disputes that, citing the disclaimer as "an admission of guilt. What director would make such a statement if he truly believed that his film would not be taken to be representative of the whole?"[15]
Friedkin has said that he was disappointed with Pacino's lack of professionalism during the shoot, claiming that he was often late and did not add any ideas to the character nor film. On the other hand, Pacino has said that Friedkin did not let him know how to interpret the end of the film, saying, "Am I the killer at the end of the picture or have I gone gay? To this day I don't know because Friedkin never told me how to play my final scene."[16] In his autobiography, Friedkin says that a single shot can change the whole plot of a movie when talking about Cruising, implying that the ambiguous ending might not have been planned from the start. However, some elements in the movie do suggest that Burns might be the killer, like a scene at the beginning, showing him wearing the killer's cap, as well as the fact that Richards does not attack first, and that Burns stabs him. Furthermore, the killer is said to sing a nursery rhyme before he kills, and Burns is the only person who sings one in the movie.[17][18]
Protests
Throughout summer 1979, members of New York City's gay community protested the film's production. Protests started at the urging of journalist Arthur Bell, whose series of articles on unsolved murders of gay men inspired the film.[3] Gay people were urged to disrupt filming, and gay-owned businesses to bar the filmmakers from their premises. People attempted to interfere with shooting by pointing mirrors from rooftops to ruin lighting for scenes, blasting whistles and air horns near locations, and playing loud music. One thousand protesters marched through the East Village demanding that the city withdraw support for the film.[19] As a result of interference, the movie's audio was often overdubbed to remove the noise caused by off-camera protesters.[20]
Al Pacino said that he understood the protests, but insisted that, after reading the screenplay, he never felt that the film was anti-gay. He said that the leather bars were "just a fragment of the gay community, the same way the Mafia is a fragment of Italian-American life" (referring to The Godfather), and that he would "never want to do anything to harm the gay community".[21] However, in 2024, Pacino admitted in his memoir Sonny Boy that he viewed the film as "exploitative" after seeing the finished product, and refused to promote it.[22]
Release and reception
General Cinema Corporation successfully blind bid to exhibit the film. After previewing the final cut, however, the company executives were so shocked by its content that they refused to release it in their theaters.[23]
Cruising was released February 15, 1980, in the United States, and had a box-office take of $19.8 million.[24]
Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, and gay activist groups publicly protested Cruising.[25] However, critical opinion has somewhat warmed over the years, as the film has been reassessed.[26][27]
The film holds a 48% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, based on 64 reviews, with a weighted average of 6.1/10. The site's consensus states: "Cruising glides along confidently thanks to filmmaking craft and Al Pacino's committed performance, but this hot button thriller struggles to engage its subject matter sensitively or justify its brutality."[28]
On its original release, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave Cruising two-and-a-half stars out of four, describing it as well-filmed and suspenseful, but adding that it "seems to make a conscious decision not to declare itself on its central subject" (the true feelings of Pacino's character about the S&M subculture, which are never explored to Ebert's satisfaction).[29]
Critic Jack Sommersby's comments typified the contemporary criticism directed at non-political matters such as character development and the changes made when the film was transferred from a novel to a film:[30]
[On the character of the serial killer] "The closest we get to a motivation comes from his imaginary conversations with his deceased, formerly-disapproving father, who tells his boy, 'You know what you have to do,' which sets him off to kill, and, again, we're baffled as to the connection Friedkin's trying to make. Was the father's disapproval pertaining to his son being gay, and is the son trying to win back his father's approval by killing men of a sexual nature the father has a seething hatred for? If so, there's no indication of any of this. In fact, we don't even know if the father knew his son was gay before passing on."
[On the character of Officer Steve Burns] "Gone is the backstory of his having harassed gays at an off-base bar when he was in the Army; also gone is his racism, along with his seemingly asexual nature in the first half. Instead, he's been made a regular, happy-go-lucky guy with a steady girlfriend. One can easily surmise Friedkin's motivation here: using someone identifiable to lead us into the underworld of black leather and kinky sex... [W]e're brought up short, and the cop's emotional progression seems stunted, as if Friedkin simply didn't care. We see the cop engaging in some heavy vaginal intercourse with his girlfriend, but we don't know if he's normally this semi-rough, if he's doing so under the pretense that the rougher, the manlier he must be—freaking away any trace of gay, if you will. A week later, the girlfriend complains about his not wanting her any more, and he replies, 'What I'm doing is affecting me.' How? Turning him off sex with women, or off sex altogether in light of what he's seeing and experiencing every night? Again, we do not know."
The second major criticism of the film at its release came from gay activists who felt that the film had a homophobic political message, and that it portrayed gay men as being attracted to violence, which could, in turn, justify homophobic hate crimes. Ebert wrote, "The validity of these arguments is questionable."[29]
However, several critics have taken issue with its portrayal of gay men. TV Guide's Movie Guide, for example, noticed that the gay scene is portrayed in the movie "as irredeemably sick and violent", with "virtually nobody [being] portrayed sympathetically".[31]
Brian Juergens, associate editor with gay culture website AfterEllen, contended that the movie "viciously exploited" the gay community, arguing that gay male sexuality does not seem to serve any purpose in the plot other than being a prop to shock heterosexual audiences. Although the film contains a disclaimer saying that it does not intend to be "an indictment of the homosexual world", Juergens states that certain elements in the plot—especially the fact that it is hinted that several gay male killers are operating simultaneously—"makes a clear statement (however unintended the filmmakers may maintain it is) about a community as a whole".[20]
Vito Russo wrote, "Gays who protested the making of the film maintained that it would show that when Pacino recognized his attraction to the homosexual world, he would become psychotic and begin to kill."[15]
However, in Exorcising Cruising, a behind-the-scenes documentary on the Cruising DVD, Friedkin claims that the film was supported by much of New York City's leather/S&M community, who appeared by the dozens as extras in the nightclub scenes.[32]
Raymond Murray, editor of Images in the Dark (an encyclopedia of gay and lesbian films), writes that "the film proves to be an entertaining and (for those born too late to enjoy the sexual excesses of pre-AIDS gay life) fascinating if ridiculous glimpse into gay life—albeit Hollywood's version of gay life". He also says that "the film is now part of queer history and a testament to how a frightened Hollywood treated a disenfranchised minority".[33]
In retrospect, William Friedkin said, "Cruising came out around a time that gay liberation had made enormous strides among the general public. It also came out around the same time that AIDS was given a name. I simply used the background of the S&M world to do a murder mystery; it was based on a real case. But the timing of it was difficult because of what had been happening to gay people. Of course, it was not really set in a gay world; it was the S&M world. But many critics who wrote for gay publications or the underground press felt that the film was not the best foot forward as far as gay liberation was concerned, and they were right. Now it's reevaluated as a film. It could be found wanting as a film, but it no longer has to undergo the stigma of being an anti-gay screed, which it never was."[34]
In a 2006 interview, Camille Paglia stated, "I loved Cruising—while everyone else was furiously condemning it. It had an underground decadence that wasn't that different from The Story of O or other European high porn of the 1960s."[35]
Several film directors cite the movie as among their favorite films. Quentin Tarantino says that when he was doing a play on Broadway in 1995, he held a screening for gay members of the theater community, and "It just blew their minds. They loved it."[36]
According to a 2013 book by film professor R. Hart Kylo-Patrick,[40] "Two months after the film's release, a bar prominently displayed in the movie came under attack by a man with a submachine gun, killing two patrons and wounding 12 others. Friedkin refused to comment on the attack." This attack, which occurred November 19, 1980 (nine months after the film was released), was carried out by Ronald K. Crumpley, formerly an officer with the New York City Transit Police.[41][42][43]
First, he shot two people outside a delicatessen with an Uzi, then walked a few blocks, where he shot into a group of men standing outside the Ramrod. In total, he shot eight people, two of whom died. Crumpley was said to have told the police after his arrest, "I'll kill them all—the gays—they ruin everything." He was found "not responsible by reason of mental disease or defect", and spent the rest of his life at a psychiatric hospital until his death on April 30, 2015, at age 73. The New York Times covered the incident at the time of the attacks, and revisited it in 2016, following the Pulse Nightclub massacre; these articles do not mention Cruising nor Friedkin.
The brutal 1981 murder of gay Sydney man Gerald Cuthbert following a sexual liaison was linked to the film in contemporary media reports.[44] It was claimed that Cuthbert, who was stabbed more than 60 times, had befriended American sailors and, according to one newspaper article, US sailors were shown Cruising on board a naval vessel docked in Sydney on the night of the murder.[44] Police were unable to confirm this, and the crime has never been solved.
Photographer Robert Mapplethorpe's initial interest in the Black male form was inspired by the interrogation scene in Cruising (in addition to films like Mandingo), in which an unknown black character, wearing only a jockstrap and cowboy hat, enters the interrogation room and slaps the protagonist across the face.[45]
Home media
A deluxe collector's edition DVD was released in 2007 and 2008 by Warner Home Video. The release is not a director's cut, but does include some scenes that are not seen in the original VHS release, as well as additional visual effects added by Friedkin.
Friedkin did a director's commentary track for the DVD. This version does not have the disclaimer at the beginning stating that Cruising depicts a gay S&M subculture and is not representative of mainstream gay life. The DVD includes two bonus features titled "The History of Cruising" and "Exorcising Cruising", the latter about the controversy that the film provoked during principal photography, and after it was released. A special edition Blu-ray, with a restored print of the film, was released by Arrow on August 20, 2019. It has similar bonus features.[46]
Interior. Leather Bar.
In 2013, filmmakers James Franco and Travis Mathews released Interior. Leather Bar., a film in which they appear as filmmakers working on a film that reimagines and attempts to recreate the 40 minutes of deleted and lost footage from Cruising.[47] (The period after "Interior" is a reference to Cruising's shooting script, describing an indoor scene at such a bar.)[48] The film is not actually a recreation of the footage. Instead, it uses a docufiction format to explore the creative and ethical issues arising from the process of trying to film such a project.[47]
American Horror Story
The eleventh season of American Horror Story centers on a murder mystery plot notably similar to the one of Cruising. The second episode includes a direct homage to the film's interrogation scene.[49]
Alfredo James Pacino is an American actor. Considered one of the greatest and most influential actors of the 20th century, Pacino has received many accolades including an Academy Award, two Tony Awards, and two Primetime Emmy Awards, achieving the Triple Crown of Acting. He has also received four Golden Globe Awards, a BAFTA, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, and was honored with the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2001, the AFI Life Achievement Award in 2007, the National Medal of Arts in 2011, and the Kennedy Center Honors in 2016.
Leather subculture denotes practices and styles of dress organized around sexual activities that involve leather garments, such as leather jackets, vests, boots, chaps, harnesses, or other items. Wearing leather garments is one way that participants in this culture self-consciously distinguish themselves from mainstream sexual cultures. Many participants associate leather culture with BDSM practices and its many subcultures. For some, black leather clothing is an erotic fashion that expresses heightened masculinity or the appropriation of sexual power; love of motorcycles, motorcycle clubs and independence; and/or engagement in sexual kink or leather fetishism.
William David Friedkin was an American film, television and opera director, producer, and screenwriter who was closely identified with the "New Hollywood" movement of the 1970s. Beginning his career in documentaries in the early 1960s, he is best known for his crime thriller film The French Connection (1971), which won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and the horror film The Exorcist (1973), which earned him another Academy Award nomination for Best Director.
Cruising for sex or cruising is walking or driving about a locality, called a cruising ground, in search of a sex partner, usually of the anonymous, casual, one-time variety. The term is also used when technology is used to find casual sex, such as using an Internet site or a telephone service.
The Boys in the Band is a 1970 American drama film directed by William Friedkin from a screenplay by Mart Crowley, based on Crowley's 1968 Off-Broadway play of the same name. It is among the early major American motion pictures to revolve around gay characters, often cited as a milestone in the history of gay cinema, and thought to be the first mainstream American film to use the swear word "cunt".
To Live and Die in L.A. is a 1985 American neo-noir action thriller film directed and co-written by William Friedkin. It is based on the 1984 novel of the same name by former U.S. Secret Service agent Gerald Petievich, who co-wrote the screenplay with Friedkin. It stars William Petersen, Willem Dafoe, John Pankow, John Turturro, Darlanne Fluegel and Dean Stockwell. Wang Chung composed and performed the original music soundtrack. The film tells the story of the lengths to which two Secret Service agents go to arrest a counterfeiter.
Gay-for-pay describes male or female actors, pornographic stars, or sex workers who identify as heterosexual but who are paid to act or perform as homosexual professionally. The term has also applied to other professions and even companies trying to appeal to a gay demographic. The stigma of being gay or labeled as such has steadily eroded since the Stonewall riots began the modern American gay rights movement in 1969. Through the 1990s, mainstream movie and television actors have been more willing to portray homosexuality, as the threat of any backlash against their careers has lessened and society's acceptance of gay and lesbian people has increased.
Rampage is a 1987 American crime drama film written, produced and directed by William Friedkin. The film stars Michael Biehn, Alex McArthur, and Nicholas Campbell. Friedkin wrote the script based on the novel of the same name by William P. Wood, which was inspired by the life of Richard Chase.
Sea of Love is a 1989 American neo-noir thriller film directed by Harold Becker, written by Richard Price and starring Al Pacino, Ellen Barkin and John Goodman. The story concerns a New York City detective trying to catch a serial killer who finds victims through the singles column in a newspaper.
Cruising is a novel written by New York Times reporter Gerald Walker and published in 1970. The novel is about an undercover policeman looking for a homosexual serial killer in the gay New York City of 1970. The murder victims were closeted or relatively open men who came across the killer while cruising for sex. While undercover, the policeman develops feelings for his gay neighbor.
Righteous Kill is a 2008 American crime thriller film directed by Jon Avnet and written by Russell Gewirtz. The film stars Robert De Niro and Al Pacino as New York City Police Department detectives on the hunt for a serial killer. It is the third film in which both De Niro and Pacino appear in starring roles, and also stars John Leguizamo, Carla Gugino, Donnie Wahlberg, Brian Dennehy, and Curtis Jackson.
The Exorcist III is a 1990 American supernatural psychological horror film written for the screen and directed by William Peter Blatty, based on his 1983 novel Legion. It is the third installment in The Exorcist film series, and the final installment in Blatty's "Trilogy of Faith" after The Ninth Configuration (1980). The film stars George C. Scott, Ed Flanders, Jason Miller, Scott Wilson, Nicol Williamson, and Brad Dourif.
Richard Cox is an American theater, film and television actor. He is known for his roles as Stuart Richards in the film Cruising and Max Frazier on Ghostwriter. He has won a Clarence Derwent Award and was nominated for Broadway's 1979 Tony Award as Best Actor for Platinum.
Interior. Leather Bar. is a 2013 American docufiction film, which premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival. Directed by James Franco and Travis Mathews, the film stars Franco and Mathews as themselves working on a film project which reimagines and attempts to recreate the 40 minutes of deleted and lost sexually explicit footage from the controversial 1980 film Cruising. The film's cast also includes Val Lauren, Christian Patrick, Brenden Gregory, Brad Roberge, Colin Chavez, Michael Lannan and A.J. Goodrich.
Phil Spector is a 2013 American biographical drama television film written and directed by David Mamet. The film is based on the murder trials of record producer, songwriter and musician Phil Spector and premiered on HBO on March 24, 2013. It stars Al Pacino as Phil Spector, Helen Mirren as defense attorney Linda Kenney Baden, and Jeffrey Tambor as defense attorney Bruce Cutler. It focuses primarily on the relationship between Spector and Linda Kenney Baden, his defense attorney in 2007 during the first of his two murder trials for the 2003 death of Lana Clarkson in his California mansion, and is billed as "an exploration of the client–attorney relationship" between Spector and Kenney Baden.
The Mineshaft was a members-only BDSM leather bar and sex club for gay men located at 835 Washington Street, at Little West 12th Street, in Manhattan, New York City, in the Meatpacking District, West Village, and Greenwich Village sections.
Paul Bateson is an American convicted murderer and former radiographer. He appeared as a radiologic technologist in a scene from the 1973 horror film The Exorcist, which was inspired when the film's director, William Friedkin, watched him perform a cerebral angiography the previous year. The scene, with a considerable amount of blood onscreen, was, for many viewers, the film's most disturbing scene; medical professionals have praised it for its realism.
The Anvil was a gay BDSM after-hours sex club located at 500 West 14th Street, New York, NY, USA, that operated from 1974 to 1985.
The bag murders were a series of murders of six men from 1975 to 1977 in New York City. The nickname originated from the fact that each victim had been dismembered, their remains stuffed in a garbage bag and thrown into the Hudson River. The identities of the victims, as well as their killer, have never been established. The case and the subsequent events surrounding it had a significant impact on the gay community.
Camille O'Grady was an American musician, visual artist, poet, drag king, and performance artist. She described herself as a "multimedium" artist.
↑ Fritscher, Jack. Mapplethorpe: assault with a deadly camera: a pop culture memoir, an outlaw reminiscence. Mamaroneck, NY: Hastings House, 1994. Print.
↑ "Cruising". Arrow Films US. Retrieved March 19, 2023.
↑ Nahmod, David-Elijah (Summer 2014). "Franco Pushes Boundaries with 'Interior. Leather bar'". The Mirror. Vol.3, no.2. Wilton Manors, Florida. p.42. This article omits the period following "Bar.")
Hadleigh, Boze (2001). The Lavender Screen: The Gay and Lesbian Films: Their Stars, Makers, Characters, and Critics. Citadel Press. ISBN978-0-8065-2199-2.
Williams, Linda Ruth (2005). The Erotic Thriller in Contemporary Cinema. Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0-253-34713-8.
Further reading
Ercolani, Eugenio / Stiglegger, Marcus (2020). Cruising, Liverpool Univ. Press. ISBN978-1-800-34607-9
Nystrom, Derek (2009). Hard Hats, Rednecks, and Macho Men: Class in 1970s American Cinema. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN9780195336764.
Savran, David (1998). Taking It Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and Contemporary American Culture. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-05876-8, pp.213–217.
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