Displaced aggression

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If the cat cannot attack the stimulus, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or directing aggression to the nearest cat, dog, human or other being. OtAG.JPG
If the cat cannot attack the stimulus, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or directing aggression to the nearest cat, dog, human or other being.

Displaced aggression, also referred to as redirected aggression, occurs when an animal or human is fearful or agitated by external stimuli, a provocation, or perception, but is unable or unwilling to direct their aggression toward the stimulus. The aggressor may direct aggression toward whoever is nearest. The behavior is more common in cats than it is in dogs. In certain species of monkeys anger is redirected toward a relative or friend of an opponent. In cichlid fish, it may be used to manage conflict within the group. Displaced aggression is experienced by humans and animals.

Contents

Displaced aggression can also be known as triggered displaced aggression which is defined by a person being triggered, or provoked, by another to cause a display of negative emotion. [3] These outbursts of negative emotion are a result of not being able to control emotions and letting one's anger build over time. What makes triggered displaced aggression different is that there is the provocation, which is what causes one to be angry, and the provocation which leads to the reaction; the aggressive reaction often goes beyond the magnitude of these two components combined. [4]

Cats

Redirected aggression is a common form of aggression which can occur in multiple cat households. Usually there is some stimulus that agitates: this could be a sight, sound, or another source of stimuli which causes a heightened level of anxiety or arousal. If the cat cannot attack the stimulus, it may direct anger elsewhere by attacking or directing aggression to the nearest cat, dog, human or other being. [1] [2] Redirected aggression is more common in cats than in dogs. [5]

Dogs

Aggressive behavior in dogs is often rooted in fear. [6] It is thought that a dog may go into a state of self-protection when it feels threatened. [7] Some dogs may also become overstimulated or feel frustrated when they cannot get to the stimuli, which causes anxiety or fear. The dog may divert their anger toward their owner in what is referred to as a redirected bite. [6]

In some cases, dogs may be frustrated by being unable to go after prey, and they turn on the owner in what is redirected aggression. [8] One woman, Bethany Lynn Stephens, was killed by her own two dogs; the incident has been referred to as a possible case of dogs redirecting aggression. [8] [9]

Elephants

Some solitary adolescent male elephants (10 to 15 years old) were observed bashing vegetation or charging other non-threatening animals in what is thought to be a form of redirected aggression. [10]

Monkeys

The behavior has also been observed in monkeys of the rhesus macaques ( Macaca mulatta ) and vervet and yellow baboon ( Papio cynocephalus ) species. In the case of the rhesus macaques, and vervets, the redirected anger is not toward a random monkey, it is toward a relative of the monkey's opponent. In yellow baboons the redirected anger was toward the rival baboon's friends. Yellow baboons are known to form long term friendships. [11]

Cichlid fish

The behavior has been observed in cichlid fish Julidochromis regani , which is considered a social fish living in groups. Observing the fish, researchers noted that after an attack the target fish redirected aggression toward a third party fish, diverting the aggressor's attention toward the third party. This behavior was observed in the females of the species. The researchers also noted that the redirected aggression did not delay aggression from the original aggressor. Their conclusion was that redirected aggression is used to manage conflict in social fish. [12]

People

Displaced aggression is not only experienced by animals; it is also experienced by humans. [13] It may also take the form of scapegoating. Much like redirected aggression in animals a target of aggression or provocation directs their anger at a third party. Usually this is because it is either not possible or perhaps unwise to return or direct aggression to the original source of provocation. [14] In example, a victim attacks an uninvolved third party who had little to do with the victimization. Often the target of redirected aggression is a weaker or smaller person. [15]

Displaced aggression can take the form of domestic violence. [13] In the United States, ten million people per year—one in three women and one in ten men 18 years of age or older—experience domestic violence. [16] Domestic abusers have been found to display this aggression when they are stressed or provoked and rumination plays a vital role in higher levels of aggression. [17] Rumination is the repetitive dwelling on negative emotions and what caused their negative feelings. [18]

This type of thinking is also involved in mood disorders like depression and anxiety. Those that have depression often experience rumination by repeatedly thinking and dwelling on their depressive symptoms and the causes of their symptoms leading to a lack of control of their mental states. [19] This can also be seen in individuals who experience anxiety as rumination is often one of the many symptoms of this disorder. [19] Because there is relationship between these disorders and rumination, individuals who suffer from them will often have bouts of displaced aggression as a result of them not having full control over their thoughts and emotions.

Road rage is another example of displaced aggression; the American Psychological Association states that factors such as crowded roads can boost anger behind the wheel causing displaced anger. [20] Traffic on the roads can cause people to take their aggression out on uninvolved drivers. Year over year there is a seven percent increase on reported cases of road rage in the United States. Frustrated or impatient drivers operate recklessly by speeding and cutting off drivers. [21] [22]

Ingesting alcohol can also cause displays of displaced aggression as it lowers inhibitions and increases aggressive behavior. If one is intoxicated, it has been shown that a notable trigger, like an insult, will lead to a higher degree of aggression than those who are sober and have full control of themselves. [23] However, under heavy intoxication the level of aggression and display of displaced aggression will fade as inhibitions are so low it is hard for one to notice such a trigger. [23] Displays of displaced aggression also come from a sense of incompetency and threats to our beliefs about our self-efficacy. [24] Humans tend to think of themselves as self-sufficient and establish goals they strive towards, and when there are obstacles in the way of these goals, their sense of self-efficacy is often harmed. A depleted sense of self-efficacy and frustration in reaching goals motivates displaced aggression as there is often not a way to take out this aggression on what is blocking one from reaching their set goal. [24]

In the case of human groups or communities the aggression may be directed at a local minority population. This behavior has been observed in redirected aggression toward immigrants in the form of xenophobia. [15] The term scapegoating is occasionally used to describe this phenomenon. [14]

Strategies

The agitated animal must be avoided until it is no longer angry. [1] The animal's access to whatever the stimulus was should be restricted. [25]

One strategy humans can deploy to mediate displays of displaced aggression is mindfulness. Although it seems simple, a sense of mindfulness is associated with lower levels of hostility and aggression, both verbal and physical. [26] Having a sense of mindfulness, put simply, is being aware of your emotions and how you are displaying them. A part of this is being able to recognize when the aggression begins to take control and having ways to manage this aggression. This can include calling a loved one, meditating, and writing down what caused this anger. Humans should avoid getting involved by interfering in fights or using physical punishment as a corrective tool. The person may be considered the threat in those scenarios. [7]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fear</span> Basic emotion induced by a perceived threat

Fear is an intensely unpleasant primal emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, which in extreme cases of fear can be a freeze response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aggression</span> Social interaction aiming at inflicting harm or unpleasantness

Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; whilst the former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anger</span> Intense hostile emotional state of mind

Anger, also known as wrath or rage, is an intense emotional state involving a strong uncomfortable and non-cooperative response to a perceived provocation, hurt, or threat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jealousy</span> Emotion

Jealousy generally refers to the thoughts or feelings of insecurity, fear, and concern over a relative lack of possessions or safety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mood swing</span> Extreme or rapid change in mood

A mood swing is an extreme or sudden change of mood. Such changes can play a positive part in promoting problem solving and in producing flexible forward planning, or be disruptive. When mood swings are severe, they may be categorized as part of a mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, where erratic and disruptive mood swings are a defining feature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anger management</span> Therapy for anger prevention and control

Anger management is a psycho-therapeutic program for anger prevention and control. It has been described as deploying anger successfully. Anger is frequently a result of frustration, or of feeling blocked or thwarted from something the subject feels is important. Anger can also be a defensive response to underlying fear or feelings of vulnerability or powerlessness. Anger management programs consider anger to be a motivation caused by an identifiable reason which can be logically analyzed and addressed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fight-or-flight response</span> Physiological reaction to a perceived threat or harmful event

The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-freeze-or-fawn is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon in 1915. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress. The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part.

In psychology, displacement is an unconscious defence mechanism whereby the mind substitutes either a new aim or a new object for things felt in their original form to be dangerous or unacceptable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog aggression</span> Behavior in dogs

Dog aggression expressed by dogs is considered to be normal behaviour and various types of aggression are influenced by a dog's environment and genetic predisposition. Dogs commonly display possessive aggression when defending resources or themselves.

Emotional dysregulation is characterized by an inability in flexibly responding to and managing emotional states, resulting in intense and prolonged emotional reactions that deviate from social norms, given the nature of the environmental stimuli encountered. Such reactions not only deviate from accepted social norms but also surpass what is informally deemed appropriate or proportional to the encountered stimuli.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotion in animals</span> Research into similarities between non-human and human emotions

Emotion is defined as any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content. The existence and nature of emotions in non-human animals are believed to be correlated with those of humans and to have evolved from the same mechanisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to write about the subject, and his observational approach has since developed into a more robust, hypothesis-driven, scientific approach. Cognitive bias tests and learned helplessness models have shown feelings of optimism and pessimism in a wide range of species, including rats, dogs, cats, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings, pigs, and honeybees. Jaak Panksepp played a large role in the study of animal emotion, basing his research on the neurological aspect. Mentioning seven core emotional feelings reflected through a variety of neuro-dynamic limbic emotional action systems, including seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic and play. Through brain stimulation and pharmacological challenges, such emotional responses can be effectively monitored.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat communication</span> Feline means of sending or receiving information

Cats communicate for a variety of reasons, including to show happiness, express anger, solicit attention, and observe potential prey. Additionally, they collaborate, play, and share resources. When cats communicate with humans, they do so to get what they need or want, such as food, water, attention, or play. As such, cat communication methods have been significantly altered by domestication. Studies have shown that domestic cats tend to meow much more than feral cats. They rarely meow to communicate with fellow cats or other animals. Cats can socialize with each other and are known to form "social ladders," where a dominant cat is leading a few lesser cats. This is common in multi-cat households.

Growling is a low, guttural vocalization produced by animals as an aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specific contexts as a form of communication. In humans, low or dull rumbling noises may also be emitted when they are discontent with something or they are angry, although this human sound is often termed "groaning".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dog behavior</span> Internally coordinated responses of dogs to internal and external stimuli

Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cat behavior</span> Behavior of cats

Cat behavior encompasses the actions and reactions displayed by a cat in response to various stimuli and events. Cat behavior includes body language, elimination habits, aggression, play, communication, hunting, grooming, urine marking, and face rubbing. It varies among individuals, colonies, and breeds.

In psychology, self-compassion is extending compassion to one's self in instances of perceived inadequacy, failure, or general suffering. American psychologist Kristin Neff has defined self-compassion as being composed of three main elements – self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness.

Animal psychopathology is the study of mental or behavioral disorders in non-human animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rumination (psychology)</span> Focused attention

Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one's mental distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions, according to the Response Styles Theory proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema in 1998.

The frustration–aggression hypothesis, also known as the frustration–aggression–displacement theory, is a theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard, Neal Miller, Leonard Doob, Orval Mowrer, and Robert Sears in 1939, and further developed by Neal Miller in 1941 and Leonard Berkowitz in 1969. The theory says that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to attain a goal.

Sham rage is behavior such as biting, clawing, hissing, arching the back, and "violent alternating limb movements" produced in animal experiments by removing the cerebral cortex, which are claimed to occur in the absence of any sort of inner experience of rage. These behavioral changes are reversed with small lesions in hypothalamus.

References

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  12. ↑ Ito, MH; Yamaguchi, M; Kutsukake, N (31 January 2018). "Redirected aggression as a conflict management tactic in the social cichlid fish Julidochromis regani". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 285 (1871). doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2681. PMC   5805954 . PMID   29386369.
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