Enhanced Fujita scale

Last updated

Enhanced Fujita Scale
EFUUnknownNo surveyable damage
EF065–85 mphLight damage
EF186–110 mphModerate damage
EF2111–135 mphConsiderable damage
EF3136–165 mphSevere damage
EF4166–200 mphDevastating damage
EF5>200 mphIncredible damage
The National Weather Service's arrow showing the EF scale. This includes a description word for each level of the scale. The National Weather Service Six-Step Wording for the Enhanced Fujita Scale.jpg
The National Weather Service's arrow showing the EF scale. This includes a description word for each level of the scale.

The Enhanced Fujita scale (abbreviated as EF-Scale) rates tornado intensity based on the severity of the damage they cause. It is used in some countries, including the United States and France. [1] The EF scale is also unofficially used in other countries, including China. [2]

Contents

The scale has the same basic design as the original Fujita scale—six intensity categories from zero to five, representing increasing degrees of damage. It was revised to reflect better examinations of tornado damage surveys, in order to align wind speeds more closely with associated storm damage. Better standardizing and elucidating what was previously subjective and ambiguous, it also adds more types of structures and vegetation, expands degrees of damage, and better accounts for variables such as differences in construction quality. An "EF-Unknown" (EFU) category was later added for tornadoes that cannot be rated due to a lack of damage evidence. [3]

As with the Fujita scale, the Enhanced Fujita scale remains a damage scale and only a proxy for actual wind speeds. While the wind speeds associated with the damage listed have not undergone empirical analysis (such as detailed physical or any numerical modeling) owing to excessive cost, the wind speeds were obtained through a process of expert elicitation based on various engineering studies since the 1970s as well as from the field experience of meteorologists and engineers. Unlike the original Fujita scale and International Fujita scale, ratings on the Enhanced Fujita scale are based solely off the effects of 3-second gusts on any given damage indicator. [4]

History

The Enhanced Fujita scale replaced the decommissioned Fujita scale that was introduced in 1971 by Ted Fujita. [5] Operational use began in the United States on February 1, 2007, followed by Canada on April 1, 2013, who uses a modified version known as the CEF-scale. [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] It has also been in use in France since 2008, albeit modified slightly by using damage indicators that take into account French construction standards, native vegetation, and the use of metric units. [11] Similarly, the Japanese implementation of the scale is also modified along similar lines; the Japanese variant is referred to locally in Japan as the JEF or Japanese Enhanced Fujita Scale. [12] The scale is also used unofficially in other countries, such as China. [13]

The newer scale was publicly unveiled by the National Weather Service at a conference of the American Meteorological Society in Atlanta on February 2, 2006. It was developed from 2000 to 2004 by the Fujita Scale Enhancement Project of the Wind Science and Engineering Research Center at Texas Tech University, which brought together dozens of expert meteorologists and civil engineers in addition to its own resources. [14]

The scale was used for the first time in the United States a year after its public announcement when parts of central Florida were struck by multiple tornadoes, the strongest of which were rated at EF3 on the new scale.

In November 2022, a research paper was published that revealed a more standardized EF-scale was in the works. This newer scale is expected to combine and create damage indicators, and introduce new methods of estimating windspeeds. Some of these newer methods include mobile doppler radar and forensic engineering. [15]

In 2024, Anthony W. Lyza, Matthew D. Flournoy, and A. Addison Alford, researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology, published a paper stating, ">20% of supercell tornadoes may be capable of producing EF4–EF5 damage". [16]

Parameters

The seven categories for the EF scale are listed below, in order of increasing intensity. Although the wind speeds and photographic damage examples have been updated, the damage descriptions given are based on those from the Fujita scale, which are more or less still accurate. However, for the actual EF scale in practice, damage indicators (the type of structure which has been damaged) are predominantly used in determining the tornado intensity. [4]

ScaleWind speed estimate [17] Frequency [18] Potential DamageExample of damage
mphkm/h
EFUN/AN/A3.11%No surveyable damage.
Intensity cannot be determined due to a lack of information. This rating applies to tornadoes that traverse areas with no damage indicators, cause damage in an area that cannot be accessed by a survey, or cause damage that cannot be differentiated from that of another tornado. [3]
N/A
EF065–85105–13752.82%Minor damage.
Well-built structures are typically unscathed, though sometimes sustaining broken windows, with minor damage to roofs and chimneys. Billboards and large signs can be knocked down. Trees may have large branches broken off and may be uprooted if they have shallow roots. [19]
Sunset Beach EF0 damage.jpg
EF186–110138–17732.98%Moderate damage
Damage to mobile homes and other temporary structures becomes significant, and cars and other vehicles may be pushed off the road or flipped. Permanent structures can suffer major damage to their roofs.
 EF1 damage Richardson, Texas.jpg
EF2111–135178–2178.41%Considerable damage
Well-built structures can suffer serious damage, including roof loss, and the collapse of some exterior walls may occur in poorly built structures. Mobile homes, however, are destroyed. Vehicles can be lifted off the ground, and lighter objects can become small missiles, causing damage outside of the tornado's main path. Wooded areas have a large percentage of their trees snapped or uprooted.
 WelchEF2Damage2012.jpg
EF3136–165218–2662.18%Severe damage
A few parts of affected buildings are left standing. Well-built structures lose all outer and some inner walls. Unanchored homes are swept away, and homes with poor anchoring may collapse entirely. Trains and train cars are all overturned. Small vehicles and similarly sized objects are lifted off the ground and tossed as projectiles. Wooded areas suffer an almost total loss of vegetation and some tree debarking may occur.
 January 23, 2012, Center Point, Alabama tornado damage.JPG
EF4166–200267–3220.45%Devastating damage
Well-built homes are reduced to a short pile of medium-sized debris on the foundation. Homes with poor or no anchoring are swept completely away. Large, heavy vehicles, including airplanes, trains, and large trucks, can be pushed over, flipped repeatedly, or picked up and thrown. Large, healthy trees are entirely debarked and snapped off close to the ground or uprooted altogether and turned into flying projectiles. Passenger cars and similarly sized objects can be picked up and flung for considerable distances. (Most recent example: 2024 Greenfield tornado)
 Moore, OK EF4 damage DOD9.jpg
EF5201+323+0.05%Incredible damage
Well-built and well-anchored homes are taken off their foundations and they go into the air before obliteration. The wreckage of those homes is flung for miles and those foundations are swept completely clean. Large, steel-reinforced structures such as schools are completely leveled. Low-lying grass and vegetation are shredded from the ground. Trees are completely debarked and snapped. Very little recognizable structural debris is generated with most materials reduced to a coarse mix of small, granular particles and dispersed. Large, multiple-ton steel frame vehicles and farm equipment are often mangled beyond recognition and tossed miles away or reduced entirely to unrecognizable parts. Tall buildings collapse or have severe structural deformations. The official description of this damage highlights the extreme nature of the destruction, noting that "incredible phenomena can and will occur". (Most recent example: 2013 Moore tornado)
 EF5damageMoore2013.jpg

Damage indicators and degrees of damage

The EF scale currently has 28 damage indicators (DI), or types of structures and vegetation, each with a varying number of degrees of damage (DoD). Each structure has a maximum DoD value, which is given by total destruction. Lesser damage to a structure will yield lower DoD values. [20] The links in the right column of the following table describe the degrees of damage for the damage indicators listed in each row.

DI No.Damage indicator (DI)Maximum degrees of damage
1Small barns or farm outbuildings (SBO)8 [21]
2One- or two-family residences (FR12)10 [22]
3Manufactured home – single wide (MHSW)9 [23]
4Manufactured home – double wide (MHDW)12 [24]
5Apartments, condos, townhouses [three stories or less] (ACT)6 [25]
6Motel (M)10 [26]
7Masonry apartment or motel building (MAM)7 [27]
8Small retail building [fast-food restaurants] (SRB)8 [28]
9Small professional building [doctor's office, branch banks] (SPB)9 [29]
10Strip mall (SM)9 [30]
11Large shopping mall (LSM)9 [31]
12Large, isolated retail building [Wal-Mart, Home Depot] (LIRB)7 [32]
13Automobile showroom (ASR)8 [33]
14Automobile service building (ASB)8 [34]
15Elementary school [single-story; interior or exterior hallways] (ES)10 [35]
16Junior or senior high school (JHSH)11 [36]
17Low-rise building [1–4 stories] (LRB)7 [37]
18Mid-rise building [5–20 stories] (MRB)10 [38]
19High-rise building [more than 20 stories] (HRB)10 [39]
20Institutional building [hospital, government or university building] (IB)11 [40]
21Metal building system (MBS)8 [41]
22Service station canopy (SSC)6 [42]
23Warehouse building [tilt-up walls or heavy-timber construction] (WHB)7 [43]
24Electrical transmission lines (ETL)6 [44]
25Free-standing towers (FST)3 [45]
26Free-standing light poles, luminary poles, flag poles (FSP)3 [46]
27Trees: hardwood (TH)5 [47]
28Trees: softwood (TS)5 [48]

Differences from the Fujita scale

The new scale takes into account the quality of construction and standardizes different kinds of structures. The wind speeds on the original scale were deemed by meteorologists and engineers as being too high, and engineering studies indicated that slower winds than initially estimated cause the respective degrees of damage. [49] The old scale lists an F5 tornado as wind speeds of 261–318 mph (420–512 km/h), while the new scale lists an EF5 as a tornado with winds above 200 mph (322 km/h), found to be sufficient to cause the damage previously ascribed to the F5 range of wind speeds. None of the tornadoes in the United States recorded before February 1, 2007, will be re-categorized.

Essentially, there is no functional difference in how tornadoes are rated. The old ratings and new ratings are smoothly connected with a linear formula. The only differences are adjusted wind speeds, measurements of which were not used in previous ratings, and refined damage descriptions; this is to standardize ratings and to make it easier to rate tornadoes which strike few structures. Twenty-eight Damage Indicators (DI), with descriptions such as "double-wide mobile home" or "strip mall", are used along with Degrees of Damage (DoD) to determine wind estimates. Different structures, depending on their building materials and ability to survive high winds, have their own DIs and DoDs. Damage descriptors and wind speeds will also be readily updated as new information is learned. [20] Some differences do exist between the two scales in the ratings assigned to damage. An EF5 rating on the new scale requires a higher standard of construction in houses than does an F5 rating on the old scale. So, the complete destruction and sweeping away of a typical American frame home, which would likely be rated F5 on the Fujita scale, would be rated EF4 or lower on the Enhanced Fujita scale. [50]

Since the new system still uses actual tornado damage and similar degrees of damage for each category to estimate the storm's wind speed, the National Weather Service states that the new scale will likely not lead to an increase in the number of tornadoes classified as EF5. Additionally, the upper bound of the wind speed range for EF5 is open—in other words, there is no maximum wind speed designated. [4]

Rating classifications

Tornado rating classifications
EF0EF1EF2EF3EF4EF5
WeakModerateStrongSevereExtremeCatastrophic
WeakStrongViolent
Significant
Intense

For purposes such as tornado climatology studies, Enhanced Fujita scale ratings may be grouped into classes. [51] [52] [53] Classifications are also used by NOAA's Storm Prediction Center to determine whether the tornado was "significant". This same classification is also used by the National Weather Service. The National Weather Service of Quad Cities use a modified EF scale wording, which gives a new term for each rating on the scale, going from weak to catastrophic. [54]

The table shows other variations of the tornado rating classifications based on certain areas.

See also

Related Research Articles

The Fujita scale, or Fujita–Pearson scale, is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation. The official Fujita scale category is determined by meteorologists and engineers after a ground or aerial damage survey, or both; and depending on the circumstances, ground-swirl patterns, weather radar data, witness testimonies, media reports and damage imagery, as well as photogrammetry or videogrammetry if motion picture recording is available. The Fujita scale was replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale (EF-Scale) in the United States in February 2007. In April 2013, Canada adopted the EF-Scale over the Fujita scale along with 31 "Specific Damage Indicators" used by Environment Canada (EC) in their ratings.

The TORRO tornado intensity scale is a scale measuring tornado intensity between T0 and T11. It was proposed by Terence Meaden of the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), a meteorological organisation in the United Kingdom, as an extension of the Beaufort scale.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tornado outbreak of April 2–3, 1956</span> 1956 windstorm in the central United States

From April 2–3, 1956, a large, deadly tornado outbreak affected the Great Plains, parts of the South, and the upper Midwest in the contiguous United States, especially the Great Lakes region. The outbreak produced at least 55 tornadoes, including an F5 that devastated the Grand Rapids metropolitan area in the U.S. state of Michigan on April 3. It was one of three tornadoes to move across southwest Lower Michigan on that day. A fourth tornado struck north of the Manistee area, in the northern part of the peninsula. The Hudsonville–Standale tornado killed 18 and injured 333. It remains the fourth deadliest tornado on record in Michigan and is the most recent F5 on record there. Several other deadly, intense, long-tracked tornadoes also occurred during the outbreak. In addition to the fatalities in Kansas, Oklahoma, Michigan and Berlin, Wisconsin, three people were killed in Tennessee, one person in Kentucky and two more people in Wisconsin. In total, 39 were killed during the entire event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tornado intensity</span> Measurement of strength and severity of tornadoes

Tornado intensity is the measure of wind speeds and potential risk produced by a tornado. Intensity can be measured by in situ or remote sensing measurements, but since these are impractical for wide-scale use, intensity is usually inferred by proxies, such as damage. The Fujita scale, Enhanced Fujita scale, and the International Fujita scale rate tornadoes by the damage caused. In contrast to other major storms such as hurricanes and typhoons, such classifications are only assigned retroactively. Wind speed alone is not enough to determine the intensity of a tornado. An EF0 tornado may damage trees and peel some shingles off roofs, while an EF5 tornado can rip well-anchored homes off their foundations, leaving them bare— even deforming large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine the intensity and assign a rating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tornado outbreak of May 19–22, 1957</span> Weather event in the United States

From May 19–22, 1957, a tornado outbreak took place across the US Central Plains. A total of 59 tornadoes were reported from Colorado to the Mississippi Valley. The most destructive tornado of the severe weather event—likely part of a long-lived family—was rated at F5, the highest level, and is often called the Ruskin Heights tornado, after the site of its worst damage, a suburb and housing development in southern Kansas City, Missouri. Additionally, a powerful F4 tornado virtually destroyed Fremont, Missouri, claiming seven lives, and an F3 tornado killed eight others in and near Belgrade, Missouri. A pair of F4s—one in Minnesota, the other in Kansas—also neared F5 intensity. In all, 59 people were killed during the outbreak, including 44 in the Ruskin Heights tornado.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tornado outbreak of April 1977</span> Tornado outbreak in the United States

A violent severe weather outbreak struck the Southeast on April 4–5, 1977. A total of 22 tornadoes touched down with the strongest ones occurring in Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. The strongest was a catastrophic F5 tornado that struck the northern Birmingham, Alabama, suburbs during the afternoon of Monday, April 4. In addition to this tornado, several other tornadoes were reported from the same system in the Midwest, Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and North Carolina. One tornado in Floyd County, Georgia, killed one person, and another fatality was reported east of Birmingham in St. Clair County. In the end, the entire outbreak directly caused 24 deaths and 158 injuries. The storm system also caused the crash of Southern Airways Flight 242, which killed 72 and injured 22.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2007 Elie tornado</span> Canadas only F5 tornado

The 2007 Elie tornado was a small but extremely powerful and erratic tornado that occurred during the evening of June 22, 2007. The powerful F5 tornado that struck the town of Elie, in the Canadian province of Manitoba was known for its unusual path, how it was during its path, a rope to cone and how it is unique compared to other F5/EF5 tornadoes. It was part of a small two-day tornado outbreak that occurred in the area and reached a maximum width of 150 yards (140 m). The tornado was unusual because it caused the extreme damage during its roping out stage at a mere 35 yards (32 m) in width and moved extremely slowly and unpredictably. The tornado tracked primarily southeast, as opposed to the usual northeast, and made multiple loops and sharp turns. Because Environment Canada adopted the Enhanced Fujita scale in 2013, there will be no more tornadoes with an F5 rating, making this tornado the first confirmed F5 tornado in Canada and the last F5 tornado in the world.

On March 21–22, 1952, a severe tornado outbreak generated eight violent tornadoes across the Southern United States, causing 209 fatalities—50 of which occurred in a single tornado in Arkansas. In addition, this tornado outbreak is the second deadliest on record to ever affect the state of Tennessee, with 66 of the fatalities associated with this outbreak occurring in the state; this is only surpassed by the 90 fatalities from a tornado outbreak in 1909, and in terms of fatalities is well ahead of both the 1974 Super Outbreak and the Super Tuesday tornado outbreak, each of which generated 45 and 31 fatalities, respectively. The severe weather event also resulted in the fourth-largest number of tornado fatalities within a 24-hour period since 1950. To date this was considered the most destructive tornado outbreak in Arkansas on record.

On June 3–4, 1958, a destructive tornado outbreak affected the Upper Midwestern United States. It was the deadliest tornado outbreak in the U.S. state of Wisconsin since records began in 1950. The outbreak, which initiated in Central Minnesota, killed at least 28 people, all of whom perished in Northwestern Wisconsin. The outbreak generated a long-lived tornado family that produced four intense tornadoes across the Eau Claire–Chippewa Falls metropolitan area, primarily along and near the Chippewa and Eau Claire rivers. The deadliest tornado of the outbreak was a destructive F5 that killed 21 people and injured 110 others in and near Colfax, Wisconsin.

On December 18–20, 1957, a significant tornado outbreak sequence affected the southern Midwest and the South of the contiguous United States. The outbreak sequence began on the afternoon of December 18, when a low-pressure area approached the southern portions of Missouri and Illinois. Supercells developed and proceeded eastward at horizontal speeds of 40 to 45 miles per hour, yielding what was considered the most severe tornado outbreak in Illinois on record so late in the calendar year. Total losses in the state were estimated to fall within the range of $8–$10 million.

The following is a glossary of tornado terms. It includes scientific as well as selected informal terminology.

The International Fujita scale rates the intensity of tornadoes and other wind events based on the severity of the damage they cause. It is used by the European Severe Storms Laboratory (ESSL) and various other organizations including Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD) and State Meteorological Agency (AEMET). The scale is intended to be analogous to the Fujita and Enhanced Fujita scales, while being more applicable internationally by accounting for factors such as differences in building codes.

This is a timeline of scientific and technological advancements as well as notable academic or government publications in the area of atmospheric sciences and meteorology during the 21st century. Some historical weather events are included that mark time periods where advancements were made, or even that sparked policy change.

References

  1. ↑ "Intensité des tornades : l'Échelle améliorée de Fujita - Pédagogie - Comprendre les orages - Keraunos - Observatoire français des tornades et orages violents".
  2. ↑ Chen, Jiayi; Cai, Xuhui; Wang, Hongyu; Kang, Ling; Zhang, Hongshen; Song, Yu; Zhu, Hao; Zheng, Wei; Li, Fengju (2018). "Tornado climatology of China". International Journal of Climatology. 38 (5): 2478–2489. Bibcode:2018IJCli..38.2478C. doi:10.1002/joc.5369.
  3. 1 2 Murphy, John D. (July 9, 2018). "National Weather Service Instruction 10-1605" (PDF). National Weather Service. pp. A–74–75. Retrieved November 29, 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 "The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale)". Storm Prediction Center. February 1, 2007. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
  5. ↑ Fujita, T. Theodore (February 1971) "Proposed characterization of tornadoes and hurricanes by area and intensity". SMRP (Satellite and Mesometeorology Research Project) Research Paper 91 (Department of the Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA) 42 pages.
  6. ↑ "Fujita Tornado Damage Scale". www.spc.noaa.gov.
  7. ↑ "Tornado Scale - The Enhanced Fujita Scale". TornadoFacts.net. Archived from the original on December 18, 2017.
  8. ↑ "Enhanced Fujita Scale". Environment Canada. May 10, 2013.
  9. ↑ Repetto, Maria Pia; Burlando, Massimiliano (March 2023). Thunderstorm Outflows and their Impact on Structures (PDF). University of Genoa. p. 31. ISBN   978-88-3618-210-7 . Retrieved June 11, 2024. Next, four damage-based wind speed rating methods for tornados are introduced: the Fujita-Scale (F-Scale); the Enhanced Fujita-Scale (EF-Scale); the Canadian Enhanced Fujita-Scale (CEF-Scale); and the Japanese Enhanced Fujita-Scale (JEF-Scale)...The CEF-Scale was proposed in 2013 by Environment Canada, closely following the EF-Scale, while the CEF-Scale uses 31 DIs.
  10. ↑ Pieter Groenemeijer (ESSL); Lothar Bock (DWD); Juan de Dios Soriano (AEMet); Maciej Dutkiewicz (Bydgoszcz University of Science and Technology); Delia Gutiérrez-Rubio (AEMet); Alois M. Holzer (ESSL); Martin Hubrig; Rainer Kaltenberger; Thilo Kühne (ESSL); Mortimer Müller (Universität für Bodenkultur); Bas van der Ploeg; Tomáš Púčik (ESSL); Thomas Schreiner (ESSL); Miroslav Šinger (SHMI); Gabriel Strommer (ESSL); Andi Xhelaj (University of Genova) (July 30, 2023). "The International Fujita (IF) Scale" (PDF). European Severe Storms Laboratory. Retrieved July 30, 2023.
  11. ↑ KERAUNOS. "Intensité des tornades : l'échelle de Fujita améliorée".
  12. ↑ Suzuki, Shota; Tanaka, Yoshinobu. "The Japanese Enhanced Fujita Scale: Its Development and Implementation" (PDF). Japan Meteorological Agency.
  13. ↑ Chen, Jiayi; Cai, Xuhui; Wang, Hongyu; Kang, Ling; Zhang, Hongshen; Song, Yu; Zhu, Hao; Zheng, Wei; Li, Fengju (April 2018). "Tornado climatology of China". International Journal of Climatology. 38 (5): 2478–2489. Bibcode:2018IJCli..38.2478C. doi:10.1002/joc.5369. ISSN   0899-8418.
  14. ↑ "Enhanced Fujita Scale - Tornado Damage Scale". factsjustforkids.com. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
  15. ↑ Marshall, Tim & Brown-Giammanco, Tanya & Krautwurst, Samantha & Toledo, Nicholas. (2022). On the Current Revision of the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale.
  16. ↑ Lyza, Anthony W.; Flournoy, Matthew D.; Alford, A. Addison (March 19, 2024). "Comparison of Tornado Damage Characteristics to Low-Altitude WSR-88D Radar Observations and Implications for Tornado Intensity Estimation" (Academic publication). Monthly Weather Review . -1 (aop). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma via the American Meteorological Society: 1689–1710. Bibcode:2024MWRv..152.1689L. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0242.1 . Retrieved March 19, 2024.
  17. ↑ "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
  18. ↑ "Storm Prediction Center WCM Data". Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved September 15, 2021.
  19. ↑ "Garrett's Blog: Mobile Home Tornado Risk". 5newsonline.com. February 28, 2013. Retrieved September 30, 2020.
  20. 1 2 McDonald, James; Kishor C. Mehta (October 10, 2006). A recommendation for an Enhanced Fujita scale (EF-Scale) (PDF). Lubbock, Texas: Wind Science and Engineering Research Center, Texas Tech University . Retrieved May 21, 2013.
  21. ↑ c:File:EF DI1 (SBO).jpg
  22. ↑ c:File:EF DI2 (FR12).jpg
  23. ↑ c:File:EF DI3 (MHSW).jpg
  24. ↑ c:File:EF DI4 (MHDW).jpg
  25. ↑ c:File:EF DI5 (ACT).jpg
  26. ↑ c:File:EF DI6 (M).jpg
  27. ↑ c:File:EF DI7 (MAM).jpg
  28. ↑ c:File:EF DI8 (SRB).jpg
  29. ↑ c:File:EF DI9 (SPB).jpg
  30. ↑ c:File:EF DI10 (SM).jpg
  31. ↑ c:File:EF DI11 (LSM).jpg
  32. ↑ c:File:EF DI12 (LIRB).jpg
  33. ↑ c:File:EF DI13 (ASR).jpg
  34. ↑ c:File:EF DI14 (ASB).jpg
  35. ↑ c:File:EF DI15 (ES).jpg
  36. ↑ c:File:EF DI16 (JHSH).jpg
  37. ↑ c:File:EF DI17 (LRB).jpg
  38. ↑ c:File:EF DI18 (MROB).jpg
  39. ↑ c:File:EF DI19 (HROB).jpg
  40. ↑ c:File:EF DI20 (IB).jpg
  41. ↑ c:File:EF DI21 (MBS).jpg
  42. ↑ c:File:EF DI22 (SSC).jpg
  43. ↑ c:File:EF DI23 (WHB).jpg
  44. ↑ c:File:EF DI 24 (ETL).jpg
  45. ↑ c:File:EF DI25 (FST).jpg
  46. ↑ c:File:EF DI26 (FSP).jpg
  47. ↑ c:File:EF DI27 (TH).jpg
  48. ↑ c:File:EF DI28 (TS).jpg
  49. ↑ Wind Science and Engineering Center. (2006). A recommendation for an enhanced Fujita scale (EF-scale). Retrieved from National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center website https://www.spc.noaa.gov
  50. ↑ Doswell, Charles A.; Brooks, Harold E.; Dotzek, Nikolai (July 2009). "On the Implementation of the Enhanced Fujita Scale in the USA" (PDF). Atmospheric Research. 93 (1–3): 556–557. Bibcode:2009AtmRe..93..554D. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.11.003 . Retrieved January 20, 2020.
  51. ↑ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN   1-879362-03-1.
  52. ↑ The Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity Archived December 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine at tornadoproject.com
  53. ↑ "Severe Thunderstorm Climatology". National Severe Storms Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce. March 29, 2013. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved May 22, 2013.
  54. ↑ "The Tornado Outbreak of March 31, 2023". National Weather Service Quad Cities. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.