While in British Railways days regular steam-hauled rail services in the UK were officially limited to a 90mph (140km/h) 'line speed', before the war, the A4s had to run significantly above 90mph (140km/h) just to keep schedule on trains such as the Silver Jubilee and The Coronation,[2] with the engines reaching 100mph on many occasions.[3][4]Mallard covered almost one and a half million miles (2.4 million km) before it was retired in 1963.
The locomotive is 70ft (21m) long and weighs 165 long tons (168 tonnes, 369,600 lbs), including the tender. It is painted LNER garter blue with red wheels and steel rims.
In 1936, Nigel Gresley, the chief mechanical engineer of the LNER, ordered a new batch of six 4-6-2 "Pacific" Class A4 engines to be built at Doncaster Works.[5]:223 The A4s were known for their distinct streamlined and aerodynamic design, and designed for hauling long distance express passenger services at high speeds. The first batch comprised four locomotives which entered service in 1935, and had "Silver" in their names as they were to haul the non-stop The Silver Jubilee service between London King's Cross and Newcastle.
The six new A4s were named after a bird, influenced by Gresley's fondness of breeding wild birds, and incorporated some modifications to maximise the possibilities of the original streamlined design.[5]:221 This included a new, state-of-the-art double Kylchap chimney and blastpipe, allowing the smoke to be distributed more freely.[5]:224 However, the problem of smoke being dispersed at the front of the locomotive, in turn giving drivers only a narrow viewing window, remained unsolved, and Gresley was determined to find a solution, using Mallard, the 28th A4 locomotive as a test. It was solved after a wooden model at 1/12th of the original size of Mallard was made to undergo smoke tests in a wind tunnel setting, using a tunnel made of plasticine. After a period of testing, a solution to deflect the smoke was found and the modification was incorporated into Mallard's final design.[5]:225–227
Mallard was released from Doncaster Works and entered service on 3 March 1938, carrying the number of 4468. It wore a variety of liveries throughout its career, these were: garter blue as 4468, LNER wartime black from 13 June 1942, later wartime black with the tender marked as "NE" from 21 October 1943 as 22 with yellow small stencilled numbers, post-war garter blue with white and red lining from 5 March 1948 with stainless steel cabside number 22, British Railways dark blue as 60022 from 16 September 1949, Brunswick green from 4 July 1952 and its original LNER garter blue for preservation in 1963.
The A4 class was built with streamlined valances, or side skirting, but this was removed during the war to ease maintenance. Mallard lost its valances during a works visit on 13 June 1942, regaining them in preservation in 1963.
Mallard was fitted with twelve boilers during its 25-year career. These boilers were: 9024 (from construction), 8959 (from 4496 Golden Shuttle, 13 June 1942), 8907 (from 2511 Silver King, 1 August 1946), 8948 (from 31 Golden Plover, Walter K Whigham, 10 January 1951), 29301 (from 60019 Bittern, 4 July 1952), 29315 (from 60014 Silver Link, 23 April 1954), 29328 (new-build boiler, 7 June 1957), 29308 (from 60008 Dwight D. Eisenhower, 27 August 1958), 29310 (from 60009 Union of South Africa, 9 March 1960) and 27965 (from 60009 Union of South Africa, 10 August 1961).
Mallard has had seven tenders throughout its career. It started off with a non-corridor tender in 1938, had corridor design tenders during its British Railways days and was fitted with a non-corridor tender in 1963 to recreate its original appearance. The tenders it has been fitted with are: 5642 (3 March 1938 – 14 March 1939), 5639 (5 May 1939 – 16 January 1948), 5323 (5 March 1948 – 12 March 1953), 5648 (12 March 1953 – 21 July 1958), 5330 (27 August 1958 – 30 May 1962), 5651 (30 May 1962 – 25 April 1963) and 5670 (current tender, masquerading as original tender 5642).
The original non-corridor tender 5642 was later coupled to sister locomotive 60026 Miles Beevor when it was withdrawn on 21 December 1965 but later came into the possession of the A4 Preservation Society who had purchased this locomotive from the scrapyard to assist the restoration of classmate 4498 Sir Nigel Gresley. It was scrapped in 1973 as being surplus to requirements, by which time it had also donated parts to the restoration of A3 class locomotive 4472 Flying Scotsman, which had recently returned from America and was being restored at Derby Workshops.
Mallard was allocated to three sheds during its career: Doncaster, transferring on 21 October 1943 to Grantham and on 11 April 1948 to Kings Cross Top Shed.
1938 speed record
On 3 July 1938, Mallard claimed the world speed record for steam locomotives at 126mph (203km/h) during a trial run of a new, quick-acting brake, known as the Westinghouse QSA brake. The speed was achieved during the downward grade of Stoke Bank, south of Grantham at milepost90¼, between Little Bytham and Essendine stations. Mallard hauled a seven-coach train, including a dynamometer car which housed apparatus to record the speed. The speed it recorded exceeded the previous record speed of 124.5mph (200.4km/h) set in Germany in 1936 by DRG Class 05 No. 002. Mallard was just four months old at the time of the record, and was operated by driver Joseph Duddington, a man renowned within the LNER for taking calculated risks, and fireman Thomas Bray.[6] Upon arrival at London King's Cross, driver Duddington and inspector Sid Jenkins were quoted as saying that they thought a speed of 130mph (209km/h) would have been possible if the train did not need to slow for a set of junctions at Essendine. There was also a permanent speed restriction of 15mph (24km/h) just north of Grantham station, which slowed the train as they sought to build up maximum speed for the descent of Stoke Bank.[7]
The A4 class previously had problems with the big endbearing for the middle cylinder, so the big end was fitted with a "stink bomb" of aniseed oil which would be released if the bearing overheated. After attaining the record speed, the middle big end on Mallard did overheat reduced speed, running at 70–75mph (113–121km/h) onwards to Peterborough,[8] and was sent to Doncaster Works for repair. This had been foreseen by the publicity department, who had many pictures taken for the press, in case Mallard did not make it back to Kings Cross. The (Edwardian period) Ivatt Atlantic that replaced Mallard at Peterborough was only just in sight when the head of publicity started handing out the pictures.
Mallard speed record plate
Mallard topped Stoke Bank at 75mph (121km/h) and accelerated downhill. The speeds at the end of each 1mi (1.6km) from the summit were recorded as: 87.5mph (140.8km/h), 96.5mph (155.3km/h), 104mph (167km/h), 107mph (172km/h), 111.5mph (179.4km/h), 116mph (187km/h) and 119mph (192km/h); half-mile (800m) readings after that gave 1203⁄4, 1221⁄2, 123, 1241⁄4 and finally 125mph (194, 197, 198, 200 and 201km/h). However, the dynamometer car tracks the current speed every half second on a paper roll moving 24in (610mm) for every mile travelled. Speeds could be calculated by measuring the distance between the timing marks. Immediately after the run staff in the dynamometer car calculated the speed over five second intervals, finding a maximum of 125mph (201km/h). Although 126mph (203km/h) was seen for a single second, Gresley would not accept this as a reliable measurement and 125mph (201km/h) an hour was the figure published.
Gresley planned to have another attempt in September 1939, but this was prevented by the outbreak of World War II.[9]:126 In 1948, plaques proposed and designed by Harry Underwood, a headmaster and keen steam enthusiast, were fixed onto the locomotive which stated 126mph (203km/h), and this became the generally accepted speed.[10] Despite this, some writers have commented on the implausibility of the rapid changes in speed.[11] A recent analysis has claimed that the paper roll was not moving at a constant rate, and the peaks and troughs in the speed curve resulting in claims of 125mph (201km/h) held for 5 seconds and 126mph (203km/h) for one second were just a result of this measuring inaccuracy. It concluded that a verifiable maximum speed being a sustained 124mph (200km/h) for almost a mile.[12][13] On 3July 2013, the 75th anniversary of the speed record, all six surviving A4 locomotives were brought together at the National Railway Museum.[14]
Rival claims
Mallard's record has never been officially exceeded by a steam locomotive, although a German DRG Class 05 reached 124mph (200km/h) in 1936 on a horizontal stretch of track, unlike Stoke Bank, which is slightly downhill. However, the Class 05 hauled a four-coach train of 197 tons, whereas Mallard's seven-coach train weighed 240 tons.[15]
In 1948, shortly after the formation of British Railways, the decision was taken to test locomotives from all of the former 'Big Four' companies to find the best attributes of speed, power and efficiency with coal and water. There were two ways of testing and comparing locomotives: either at the Rugby Locomotive Testing Station, which was not ready until late 1948 or by testing in the field itself. The results of the 1948 Locomotive Exchange Trials would be used to help design the British Railways Standard locomotives.
Mallard with the number 'E22' during the Locomotive exchange of 1948
Three Gresley A4 locomotives were chosen to represent the Eastern Region: E22 Mallard, 60033 Seagull and 60034 Lord Faringdon. All of the locomotives had the Kylchap double blastpipe chimney arrangement and were fresh from Doncaster works. Mallard had emerged from Doncaster with a fresh coat of post-war garter blue livery, stainless steel numbers 22 with a small 'E' painted above them (for Eastern region), new boiler (its fourth) and third tender of its career.
E22 Mallard was used on 8 June 1948 on the London Waterloo to Exeter route. Driver Marrable took the famous A4 with a load of 481 tons tare, 505 tons full, the same that had been used on the previous trip by 35018 British India Line. Mallard reached Clapham Junction in 6 minutes 57 seconds and Woking in 28 minutes 47 seconds. At Hook there were adverse signals, causing Mallard to slow to a crawl. Even so, Salisbury was reached in 108 minutes and 28 seconds. Despite the signals earlier, the train was only 5-and-a-half minutes late. The net time was 95.5 minutes.
Mallard failed after this trial and 60033 Seagull took over. On 10 June Seagull achieved the run in 96 minutes 22 seconds, but had departed 3 minutes late, meaning Seagull had arrived with the same load 3.5 minutes early. For Mallard, the trials were over, but Mallard returned to the Waterloo-Exeter line for a Locomotive Club of Great Britain (LCGB) railtour on 24 February 1963.
The Elizabethan Express was a flagship express that ran non-stop over the 393 miles (632km) between London King's Cross and Edinburgh Waverley from 1953 to the mid-1960s. Until September 1961 it was steam-hauled. In its day it was the longest non-stop run in the world. Two crews were needed for the six-and-a-half-hour run. They were able to change over mid-journey by using a corridor tender. Only a few locomotives other than Mallard had such a tender. In December 1961, Mallard hauled the final steam-hauled northbound Elizabethan train.[5]:280
Preservation
Following the introduction of diesel and electric trains, many steam locomotives across the UK were set to be scrapped. In December 1960, a notification was issued to have Mallard preserved, which was not confirmed until 29 August 1962. Its final revenue earning service took place on 25 April 1963, after which the locomotive was sent to Doncaster Works for repair and restored to its original condition.[5]:281–282
In February 1963, Mallard was sent to Nine Elms depot, followed by the Museum of British Transport museum in Clapham, south London.[5]:82[16] It then ran a series of special trains, including a run from Doncaster via Nottingham Victoria to Clapham Junction.[5]:283 Following a relaxation of the ban on steam locomotives in the UK in the 1970s, Mallard hauled a train from Stewarts Lane, Battersea to York via the Midland Main Line in on 12 April 1975 in preparation for the opening of the National Railway Museum, where it remained.[5]:283 This was followed by periods on display at York and Doncaster Works in June 1977 and June 1978, respectively.[5]:284 In the 1980s, Mallard was restored to working order to commemorate the 50th anniversary of its 1938 record speed run. Its first run took place on 26 March 1986 from York to Doncaster, and a series of other special trains were completed across England in 1986 to 1987.[5]:284 The locomotive's final run in operation was on 3 July 1988 from Doncaster to Scarborough and back, which was attended by several family members of the original train crew on the 3 July 1938 run. The trip was related to a special commemorative postage stamp featuring Mallard.[5]:285–286[17]
In July 2003, Mallard was put on display outside the National Railway Museum as part of the 150th anniversary of Doncaster Works.[5]:289 It was taken outside again in July 2008 beside three other preserved A4s located in the UK, thus reuniting them for the first time since preservation. In 2012, six preserved A4s, including two in the United States and Canada, reunited at the museum for the 75th anniversary of Mallard's recording breaking run.[18] The same six A4s were displayed together at the National Railway Museum Shildon for a short time. In June 2010, Mallard was taken to Shildon where it remained a static exhibit until July 2011, when it returned to York. In July 2019, it made its first outside appearance since 2014 when it was displayed at York station alongside a Class 800 Azuma as part of the latter's launch by the London North Eastern Railway.[19]
Models
Hornby Dublo first produced a model of Mallard in BR loco green for their 3-rail OO gauge system in 1958.[20]Bachmann and Hornby have subsequently released models of Mallard several times in Garter Blue. Hornby released a model of Mallard in BR Express Passenger Blue and a limited edition model in BR Dark Loco Green. Hornby has also released a limited edition model of 4468 in LNER form along with the other five surviving A4s in 2013. In 2023 Hornby released a TT120 scale model of "Mallard" in LNER garter blue livery along with "Silver King" in BR Brunswick green livery and "Falcon" in BR garter blue livery with white lining.
A Corgi 1:120 scale model in Garter Blue as part of a series entitled "Rail Legends" is available.
In culture
A painting of Mallard in her immediate post-war condition features on the 1993 Blur album Modern Life Is Rubbish. The painting was a stock image that Stylorouge—Blur's design consultants—obtained from a photo library in Halifax. According to Design Week magazine, the painting "evoked the feel of a Just William schoolboy's pre-war Britain".[21]
The 2013 song "East Coast Racer" by British progressive rock band Big Big Train tells the story of Mallard's record-breaking run.[22]
On the popular US TV crime drama NCIS, the Hornby model of Mallard is a usual feature in some of the scenes that take place within the autopsy department. The model can usually be seen above the desk at the end of the room, and belongs to Dr. Donald "Ducky" Mallard (played by David McCallum).[23]
The LNER Class A4 is a class of streamlined 4-6-2 steam locomotive designed by Nigel Gresley for the London and North Eastern Railway in 1935. Their streamlined design gave them high-speed capability as well as making them instantly recognisable, and one of the class, 4468 Mallard, holds the record as the world's fastest steam locomotive. Thirty-five of the class were built to haul express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line route from London Kings Cross via York to Newcastle, and later via Newcastle to Edinburgh, Scotland. They remained in service on the East Coast Main Line until the early 1960s when they were replaced by Deltic diesel locomotives; they themselves proving to be worthy successors to the A4s. Several A4s saw out their remaining days until 1966 in Scotland, particularly on the Aberdeen – Glasgow express trains, for which they were used to improve the timing from 3.5 to 3 hours.
Sir Herbert Nigel Gresley was a British railway engineer. He was one of Britain's most famous steam locomotive engineers, who rose to become Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) of the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). He was the designer of some of the most famous steam locomotives in Britain, including the LNER Class A1 and LNER Class A4 4-6-2 Pacific engines. An A1 Pacific, Flying Scotsman, was the first steam locomotive officially recorded over 100 mph in passenger service, and an A4, number 4468 Mallard, still holds the record for being the fastest steam locomotive in the world (126 mph).
The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) was the second largest of the "Big Four" railway companies created by the Railways Act 1921 in Britain. It operated from 1 January 1923 until nationalisation on 1 January 1948. At that time, it was divided into the new British Railways' Eastern Region, North Eastern Region, and partially the Scottish Region.
60009 Union of South Africa is a LNER Class A4 steam locomotive built at Doncaster Works on 16 April 1937. It is one of six surviving A4s. Its mainline certification expired in April 2020. As the locomotive is subject to a boiler inspection, it was moved to the East Lancashire Railway as the original plan was to keep it running there until the end of boiler certificate and then send it somewhere else for static display, but a cracked boiler tube forced it into retirement prematurely. It was briefly renamed Osprey during part of the 1980s and 1990s due to political opposition against apartheid in South Africa at the time.
LNER Class A3 No. 4472 Flying Scotsman is a 4-6-2 "Pacific" steam locomotive built in 1923 for the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) at Doncaster Works to a design of Nigel Gresley. It was employed on long-distance express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line by LNER and its successors, British Railways' Eastern and North Eastern Regions, notably on The Flying Scotsman service between London King's Cross and Edinburgh Waverley after which it was named.
The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) Class V2 2-6-2 steam locomotives were designed by Sir Nigel Gresley for express mixed traffic work, and built at the LNER shops at Doncaster and Darlington between 1936 and 1944. The best known is the first of the class, 4771 Green Arrow, which is the sole survivor of the class.
60008 Dwight D Eisenhower is an LNER Class A4 steam locomotive named after Dwight D. Eisenhower, the United States General of the Army.
4464Bittern is a London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) Class A4 steam locomotive. Built for the LNER and completed on 18 December 1937 at Doncaster Works as works number 1866, it received number 4464. After that it was renumbered 19 on 16 August 1946 under the LNER 1946 renumbering scheme, and finally 60019 by British Railways on 10 October 1948, after nationalisation. Of the 35 strong class, it is one of six to survive into preservation but it is one of only two currently scheduled to be certified for mainline use.
60007 Sir Nigel Gresley is an LNER Class A4 4-6-2 ("Pacific") steam locomotive built to a design of Sir Nigel Gresley in 1937 at Doncaster Works for operation on the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). The locomotive holds the post-war speed record for steam locomotives on British Railways. The locomotive was withdrawn from service in 1966 and purchased for preservation the same year; it is one of six A4s to be preserved.
4489 Dominion of Canada is an LNER Class A4 steam locomotive. It is a 4-6-2 locomotive built to the same design by Sir Nigel Gresley as the more famous Mallard. There were 35 A4 locomotives built in total. Originally numbered 4489, it was renumbered 10 on 10 May 1946, under the LNER 1946 renumbering scheme of Edward Thompson and, after nationalisation in 1948, British Railways added 60000 to its number so it became 60010 on 27 October 1948. It was renumbered back to 4489 following a cosmetic restoration at the National Railway Museum in York during late 2012 and early 2013.
London and North Eastern Railway's (LNER) Peppercorn Class A1 is a class of 4-6-2 "Pacific" steam locomotives built between 1948 and 1949 at Doncaster and Darlington Works to a design of Arthur Peppercorn. Forty-nine were built for hauling express passenger services on the East Coast Main Line owned by LNER's successor, British Railways' North Eastern Region. None of the original 49 Peppercorn A1s survived into preservation, with the last being scrapped in 1966. The 50th Peppercorn A1, 60163 Tornado, was completed in 2008 as an evolved member of its class.
The London and North Eastern Railway Gresley Classes A1 and A3 locomotives represented two distinct stages in the history of the British 4-6-2 "Pacific" steam locomotives designed by Nigel Gresley. They were designed for main line passenger services and later express passenger services, initially on the Great Northern Railway (GNR), a constituent company of the London and North Eastern Railway after the amalgamation of 1923, for which they became a standard design. The change in class designation to A3 reflected the fitting to the same chassis of a higher pressure boiler with a greater superheating surface and a small reduction in cylinder diameter, leading to an increase in locomotive weight. Eventually all of the A1 locomotives were rebuilt, most to A3 specifications, but no. 4470 was completely rebuilt as Class A1/1.
LNER Class A4 2509 Silver Link was a 4-6-2 "Pacific" built in 1935 for the London and North Eastern Railway. It was the first of the Streamlined Class A4s built to haul express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line (ECML). 2509 was one of four A4s to be painted in a special silver livery to pull a new train called the Silver Jubilee.
The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) Class B17, also known as "Sandringham" or "Footballer" class was a class of 4-6-0 steam locomotive designed by Nigel Gresley for hauling passenger services on the Great Eastern Main Line. In total 73 were built.
The LNER W1 No. 10000 was an experimental steam locomotive fitted with a high pressure water-tube boiler. Nigel Gresley was impressed by the results of using high-pressure steam in marine applications and so in 1924 he approached Harold Yarrow of shipyard and boilermakers Yarrow & Company of Glasgow to design a suitable boiler for a railway locomotive, based on Yarrow's design.
The London and North Eastern Railway Class P2 was a class of 2-8-2 steam locomotives designed by Sir Nigel Gresley for working heavy express trains over the harsh Edinburgh to Aberdeen Line. As they were to serve on Scottish expresses, they were given famous names from Scottish lore.
LNER Class A4 4902 Seagull was one of 35 Doncaster built LNER Class A4 Gresley Pacific steam locomotives.
LNER Class A4 60034 Lord Faringdon was one of 35 Doncaster built Class A4 Gresley Pacific steam locomotives.
Stoke Bank is an inclined stretch of the East Coast Main Line (ECML) between Peterborough and Grantham. It is named after the village of Stoke Rochford, close to Stoke Summit, which at 345 feet (105 m) above sea level is the highest point of the ECML between London King's Cross and Berwick-upon-Tweed. It is not however, the highest point of the entire ECML, which is Grantshouse Summit between Berwick and Edinburgh at 400 feet (120 m).
LNER Class A3 2750 Papyrus was a 4-6-2 "Pacific" steam locomotive built for the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) at Doncaster Works to a design of Nigel Gresley, entering service in March 1929. Primarily used to haul express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line by LNER and its successor, British Railways, it is notable for achieving what was at the time a world record-breaking speed for a steam locomotive of 108 mph on 5 March, 1935. A fictionalized account based on the locomotive's service history and speed record, 2750: Legend of a Locomotive by H.C. Webster, was published in 1953 and reprinted in 2016.
↑ Yeadon, Willie B. (2004). Named Trains on LNER Lines (Combineded.). Book Law Publications. p.157. ISBN1899624384.
↑ Nock, O.S. (1974). The Gresley Pacifics. Vol.2. David & Charles.
↑ The Railway Correspondence and Travel Society (1972). Locomotives of the L.N.E.R. [London & North Eastern Railway]. Part 2A: Tender Engines - Classes A1 to A10. The Railway Correspondence and Travel Society. ISBN9780901115256.
↑ Semmens, P.W.B. (1989). Speed on the East Coast Main Line. Patrick Stephens. p.64. ISBN978-0850599305.
↑ "Mallard 75". Railway Museum UK. 2014. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2018.
↑ Boddy, M.G.; Neve, E.; Yeadon, W.B. (April 1973). Fry, E.V. (ed.). Part 2A: Tender Engines – Classes A1 to A10. Locomotives of the L.N.E.R. Kenilworth: RCTS. ISBN0-901115-25-8.
↑ "Harry Underwood". West Riding Small Locomotive Society. 1948. Harry Underwood is recorded as being the instigator of the idea (via the C.M.E. Doncaster) of fitting 'Mallard' with commemorative plaques. Photo of plaque design sent to him from Doncaster for his approval.
↑ King, Bill (November–December 2001). "How fast did Mallard really go?". Journal of the Stephenson Locomotive Society. Vol.77. pp.226–230.
Allen, Cecil J. (1949). The Locomotive Exchanges 1870 – 1948. Ian Allan Publishing. A comprehensive book on locomotive exchanges, giving details of each trial and the locomotives involved.
Clarke, David (2005). Locomotives in Detail: 3 Gresley 4-6-2- A4 Class. Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN0-7110-3085-5. An overall history of the Gresley A4 class, as well as unparalleled details about the class and individual members.
Doherty, Douglas, ed. (1971). Model Railways Locomotive Album. Kings Langley, Hertfordshire: Model and Allied Publications Ltd. ISBN0-85242-221-0. An eclectic mix of articles and photographs concerning British railways, trains and locomotives
Farr, Keith (July 2013). Pigott, Nick (ed.). "Practice & Performance". The Railway Magazine. Vol.159, no.1347. Horncastle, Lincolnshire: Mortons Media Group. ISSN0033-8923. The first and premiere general railway interest magazine
Kerr, Michael (2009). Last Call for the Dining Car. London: Aurum Press Limited. ISBN978-1-84513-770-0. A compendium of railway-related pieces from the Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph over many years
Merritt, A (7 September 2015). "Letter to the Editor". The Times. London.
Yeadon, W.B. (2001). Yeadon's Register of LNER Locomotives: Volume Two: Gresley A4 and W1 classes. Booklaw/Railbus is association with Challenger. ISBN1-871608-15-5. Histories of the A4 and W1 classes of locomotive with details of repairs and liveries etc.
Mallard on the Settle and Carlisle Documentary broadcast July 10, 1989 on BBC 1 about its excursions over the Settle and Carlisle railway the weekend of July 16 and 17 1988.
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