Lactarius deterrimus

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Lactarius deterrimus
Fichten-Reizker Lactarius deterrimus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Russulales
Family: Russulaceae
Genus: Lactarius
Species:
L. deterrimus
Binomial name
Lactarius deterrimus
Gröger (1968)
Synonyms [1] [2]
  • Lactarius deliciosus var. piceus Smotl. (1947)
  • Lactarius deliciosus var. deterrimus(Gröger) Hesler & A.H.Sm. (1979)
Lactarius deterrimus
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.png Gills on hymenium
Depressed cap icon.svgConvex cap icon.svg Cap is depressed or convex
Decurrent gills icon2.svg Hymenium is decurrent
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is tan
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Edible.pngEdibility is edible

Lactarius deterrimus, also known as false saffron milkcap or orange milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The fungus produces medium-sized fruit bodies (mushrooms) with orangish caps up to 12 centimetres (4+1⁄2 inches) wide that develop green spots in old age or if injured. Its orange-coloured latex stains maroon within 30 minutes. Lactarius deterrimus is a mycorrhizal fungus that associates with Norway spruce and bearberry. The species is distributed in Europe, but has also found in parts of Asia. A visually similar species in the United States and Mexico is not closely related to the European species. Fruit bodies appear between late June and November, usually in spruce forests. Although the fungus is edible—like all Lactarius mushrooms from the section Deliciosi —its taste is often bitter, and it is not highly valued. The fruit bodies are used as source of food for the larvae of several insect species. Lactarius deterrimus can be distinguished from similar Lactarius species by difference in the mycorrhizal host or latex colour.

Taxonomy and classification

Although the fungus is one of the most common in Central Europe, the species was not validly described until 1968 by German mycologist Frieder Gröger. [1] Before this, L. deterrimus was regarded as a variety of L. deliciosus (L. deliciosus var. piceus, described by Miroslav Smotlacha in 1946). [2] After Roger Heim and A. Leclair described L. semisanguifluus in 1950, this fungus was referred to as the latter. [3] [4] L. fennoscandicus was separated from L. deterrimus in 1998 by Annemieke T. Verbeken and Jan Vesterholt and was classified as a separate species. [5]

The epithet of deterrimus is Latin, and was chosen by Gröger to highlight the poor gustatory properties of the mushroom, such as the bitter aftertaste and often heavy maggot infestations. The superlative of "dēterior" (meaning less good) [6] means "the worst, the poorest". [7] The mushroom is commonly known as the "false saffron milkcap". [8]

Several molecular phylogenetic analyses show that L. deterrimus, L. sanguifluus, Lactarius vinosus and L. fennoscandicus form a group of related species, which might include the North American species L. paradoxus and L. miniatosporus . Although L. deliciosus var. deterrimus qualifies as synonym for L. deterrimus, the families that had been characterized in North America as Lactarius deliciosus var. deterrimus are not closely related with the European types. They also seem not to form a monophyletic group. [9]

Lactarius deterrimus belongs to the section Deliciosi of the genus Lactarius. According to molecular phylogenetics studies, [9] this section forms a definite phylogenetic group within the milk cap relatives. Deliciosi species mainly have an orange or reddish-coloured latex and taste mild to slightly bitter. They are strict mycorrhizal associates of conifers. The next closest relative of L. deterrimus is L. fennoscandicus. [10]

Characteristics

Macroscopic characteristics

While the caps of old fruit bodies are usually funnel-shaped, young specimens have more rounded caps. Lactarius deterrimus (2).JPG
While the caps of old fruit bodies are usually funnel-shaped, young specimens have more rounded caps.

The cap is 3 to 10 cm (1 to 4 in), rarely up to 12 cm (4+1⁄2 in) wide and more or less centrifugal-shaped and round. It is at early stage convex and furled on the slightly churlish edge, and depressed in the centre and later flat, funnel-shaped depressed. The cap skin is bare, greasy in moist weather and slightly shiny when dry. The cap is tangerine to orange-brown, darker zoned towards the edges and dulls mainly yellow-brown. In old age or after cold or frost it changes the colour more or less to dirty greenish or green-spotted. [7] [11]

The dense, bow-like lamellae are pale-orange to pale-ochre and on the stipe basifixed or slightly decurrent. They are brittle and intermixed with shorter lamellulae (short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stem) as well as partly forking near the stem. In old age or in cases of injury they receive initially dark red, later grey green spots. The spore print is pale ochre. [7] [11]

Image detail of the underside of the cap with the predominantly orange coloured, partially crossconnected gills 2011-07-31 Lactarius deterrimus 3.jpg
Image detail of the underside of the cap with the predominantly orange coloured, partially crossconnected gills

The mainly long and cylindrical stipe is reddish orange. It is 4 to 8 cm (1+1⁄2 to 3 in) (rarely 10 cm (4 in)) long, 1 to 1.5 cm (3⁄8 to 5⁄8 in) wide and barely foveate or blotchy. On the basis it is often slightly thickened or pompous and becomes hollow inside. A bloomy circular zones is found on the lamella disposition. [7] [11]

The milk is first carrot-red and becomes a maroon colour within 10 to 30 minutes. The brittle and pale-yellowish flesh is often infested with maggots. If cut or injured it becomes, as the milk, first carrot-red, then maroon and within hours dirty green. The fruit body smells harsh, fruit-like and first tastes mild, but then slightly resinous-bitter and nearly spicy or somewhat astringent. [7] [11]

Microscopic characteristics

The rotund to ellipsoid spores are 7.5–10  µm long and 6–7.6 µm wide. The surface ornamentation extends to 0.5 µm high and is mainly from warts and short, wide ridges, which are linked through few fine lines to form an incomplete net (reticulum). The suprahilar area, a distinctly limited zone above the apiculus, is weakly amyloid. Basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored and measure 45–60 × 9.5–12 µm. They are roughly cylindrical to somewhat club-shaped and often have an oil droplet or a granular body. The sterigmata are 4.5–5.5 µm long. The thin-walled pleurocystidia are sparse, but somewhat common near the gill edge. They are protruded and are 45–65 µm long and 5–8 µm wide, they are sometimes smaller near the gill edge. Nearly spindle-shaped, they are often straightened or constricted like a string of pearls at the apex. The body is often fine and grained. Pseudocystidia are largely present. They are 4–6 µm wide and are sometimes protruded, but are often shorter than the basidioles (basidia in the early developmental stage). The basidioles are cylindric to spiral and have an ochre-coloured substance, similar to the laticifers. Near the top they are, however, almost hyaline (transparent). The gill edge is usually sterile and has a few to many cheilocystidia. The thin-walled cheiloleptocystidia are 15–25 µm long and 5–10 µm wide. They are almost club-shaped or irregularly shaped and transparent, and often contain a granular material. The cheilomacrocystidia are also thin-walled and measure 25–50 µm long and 6–8 µm wide. They are slightly spindle-shaped and often have a tip resembling a string of pearls; their interior is hyaline or granular. Laticifers are abundant, striking and body is ochre coloured. The cuticle of the cap is an ixocutis, whereby the hyphae are linked in a jellylike matrix, that can swell up in moisture to become heavily slimy. [10] [12]

Similar species

The likewise very common Lactarius deliciosus is similar in appearance. Lactarius deterrimus differs basically from the first because its flesh becomes reddish within 10 minutes and in about 30 minutes dark maroon, caused by the discolouration of the milk. The milk of L. deliciosus stays orange or becomes reddish within 30 minutes. Also, the milk of the latter tastes mild, while the milk of the first distinctly bitter. The cap of L. deterrimus changes its colour in old age or if injured distinctly greenish and is common only under spruces, while L. deliciosus is native under pines. [7] [12]

Even more similar is the very rare Lactarius semisanguifluus . Its milk also discolours within 5 to 8 minutes to maroon. The cap of older fruit bodies is nearly completely greenish. It is also common under pines. The most similar and also the most closely related fungus is Lactarius fennoscandicus , a boreal to subalpine species. Its cap is distinctly zoned and brown-orange. Sometimes the cap has purple-grey tones. The stem is pale to blunt orange-ochre. [10]

Lactarius lookalikes
Lactarius deliciosus 1 (1).jpg Lactarius semisanguifluus1597.jpg Lactarius fennoscandicus 64508.jpg
L. deliciosusL. semisanguifluusL. fennoscandicus

Distribution

Lactarius deterrimus is mainly distributed in Europe, but the fungus has also found in areas of Asia (Turkey, [13] India, [14] Pakistan [15] ). According to recent molecular biologic research, the similar North American species from the United States and Mexico are not closely related to the European species. [9] In Europe, the fungus is especially common in Northern, North-East and Central Europe; in the UK, it may be found from July through to November. In the south and west it is common in mountainous areas. In the east, its range extends to Russia. [10]

Ecology

Lactarius deterrimus has traditionally been considered to have a strict mycorrhizal host specificity with Norway spruce. In 2006, it was reported that the fungus can also form arbutoid mycorrhiza with bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi). Arbutoid mycorrhizal associations are variants of ectomycorrhiza found in certain plants in the Ericaceae characterised by hyphal coils in epidermal cells. The mycorrhiza formed by L. deterrimus on both bearberry and Norway spruce show typical features such as a hyphal mantle and a Hartig net; the distinguishing characteristic between the mycorrhizal symbioses with the different hosts is that the hyphae penetrate the epidermal cells of bearberry, although there are also some differences in the form of the Hartig net, branching pattern, and colour. Although bearberry has been shown to form mycorrhiza with a wide range of fungi both in the field and in laboratory experiments, it had never previously been known to form mycorrhiza with fungi thought to be strictly host-specific. Bearberry may function as a nurse plant to help re-establish Norway spruce in deforested areas. [16]

The species is common in spruce-fir and spruce-moorland forests and in spruce forests and plantations. Together with spruces, the fungus is also common in different European beech and oak-European hornbeam forests, but also on the forest edges, on clearings and in clearcut meadows and even on juniper heathers and in parkland. There are scarcely any habitats where the spruce is common, while the fungus is not found there. The fungus is very common in young spruce forests that are 10 to 20 years old, where it occurs on forest path edges occasionally in masses. [17] [18]

The fungus probably favours calcareous soil, although it has been found on nearly every soil type. It appears on sand, peat, limestone soils, rankers and Cambisols. It endures acidic as well as alkaline and low-nutrient to relatively high-nutrient soils. Heavily eutrophic soils are inappropriate for its habitat. [17] [18]

The fruit bodies appear from late June to November, but usually from August to October; overwintered specimens can be found in freezing days up to early February. The fungus prefers the downs and the uplands, but is also not uncommon in lowlands. [17] [18]

Fruit body

L. deterrimus is a mycorrhizal fungus that lives in symbiosis with spruces. Lesy pod Tokem3.JPG
L. deterrimus is a mycorrhizal fungus that lives in symbiosis with spruces.

Many fungi can serve as source of food for insect larvae, whereas most insects eat fungi only occasionally. Still, a whole range of insect species specialize on fungi. These animals are mainly beetle larvae, especially hairy fungus beetles (Mycetophagidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), and true flies (Diptera). Milk caps are especially attractive for true flies, while beetle larvae are comparatively rarer. The most common insects found on the fungus are Mycetophilidae and Phoridae larvae, which populate even the youngest fruit bodies. Also relatively common on mature or overaged fruit bodies are Drosophilidae and Psychodidae. [19] Species from the section Deliciosi are often infested by Diptera larvae.

The following species have been isolated from the fruit bodies of L. deterrimus: [20]

Parasitism

The deformed fruit bodies of L. deterrimus are infested by Hypomyces lateritius. 2011-11-09 Lactarius deterrimus Hypomyces lateritius.jpg
The deformed fruit bodies of L. deterrimus are infested by Hypomyces lateritius.

Abnormally developed milk caps infested by the parasitic sac fungus Hypomyces lateritius (syn. Peckialla laterita) are occasionally found in summer and autumn. The infested fruit bodies are usually more or less heavily malformed with a harder and more solid flesh than typical fruit bodies, so that they are more resistant to rot and can even survive the winter. They do not create gills; instead, the cap bottom is covered by an initially soft, white hyphen fungus, also known as a subiculum. Early on the mycelia becomes denser and takes on a white-grey colour. The perithecia are created after about 10–14 days. Perithecia are fruit bodies of the Hypomyces and other sac fungi, in which the spindle-shaped asci are produced. Besides L. deterrimus, L. deliciosus and L. sanguifluus can become infested, rarely other milk caps. Hypomyces lateritius, H. ochraceus , H. rosellus , H. odoratus , among other Hypomyces species live parasitically on different milk caps and brittlegills as well as on the fruit bodies of species from other genera. [23] [24]

Importance

Edibility

Lactarius deterrimus is an edible mushroom, but is much less appreciated than the similar L. deliciosus. The first tastes slightly bitter and is often infested by maggots. [3] [12] Like L. deliciosus, this fungus is mainly stir-fried in butter or oil; if it is cooked in water, the flesh becomes very soft. Young fruit bodies can be also pickled, or dried for later use. [25] As the fungus is often heavily infested by maggots, skilled mushroom pickers prefer young fruit bodies. The urine discolours to red if a large amount of milk caps are eaten, but this is entirely harmless and is not evidence for an impairment to health. The red-coloured azulene compounds, ingested with the mushroom food, are more or less excreted with the urine. [2]

Contents

The milk cap's fruit bodies have a characteristic orange milk juice (latex). The guaiane sesquiterpenes are responsible for the orange colour. Sesquiterpenes are terpenes composed of three isoprene units and therefore have 15 carbon atoms. Sesquiterpenes are widely distributed in nature and are found in plants as well as animals, for example in the juvenile hormone of insects. Plants use sesquiterpenes as a defense compound against insects. According to some studies, sesquiterpenes have antibiotic, anticarcinogenic, or immunostimulant effects. [26]

Young, uninjured fruit bodies of L. deterrimus have sesquiterpenoides in the form of fatty acid dihydroazulene-esters. About 85% of the yellow-coloured dihydroazulene are esterified with stearic acid and about 15% with linoleic acid. If the fruit body is injured, the free sesquiterpene – a dihydroazulene alcohol – is released enzymatically. Several products are produced from it through oxidation: the yellow-coloured aldehyde delicial (1-formyl-6, 7-dihydro-4-methyl-7-isopropenylazulene), the purple-coloured aldehyde lactarovioline (1-formyl-4-methyl-7-isopropenylazulene), and the blue-coloured alcohol deterrol (1-hydroxymethyl-4-methyl-7-isopropenylazulene). The milk is first maroon through mixing with the different colours and discolours green. The dihydroazulene alcohol and delicial are unstable compounds, which react to form further products. Delicial polymerises particularly slight. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russulaceae</span> Family of fungi in the order Russulales

The Russulaceae are a diverse family of fungi in the order Russulales, with roughly 1,900 known species and a worldwide distribution. They comprise the brittlegills and the milk-caps, well-known mushroom-forming fungi that include some edible species. These gilled mushrooms are characterised by the brittle flesh of their fruitbodies.

<i>Lactarius</i> Genus of fungi

Lactarius is a genus of mushroom-producing, ectomycorrhizal fungi, containing several edible species. The species of the genus, commonly known as milk-caps, are characterized by the milky fluid ("latex") they exude when cut or damaged. Like the closely related genus Russula, their flesh has a distinctive brittle consistency. It is a large genus with over 500 known species, mainly distributed in the Northern hemisphere. Recently, the genus Lactifluus has been separated from Lactarius based on molecular phylogenetic evidence.

<i>Lactarius deliciosus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius deliciosus, commonly known as the delicious milk cap, saffron milk cap and red pine mushroom, is one of the best known members of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius in the order Russulales. It is native to Europe, but has been accidentally introduced to other countries along with pine trees, with which the fungus is symbiotic.

<i>Russula emetica</i> Species of fungus in the family Russulaceae with a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere

Russula emetica, commonly known as the sickener, emetic russula, or vomiting russula, is a basidiomycete mushroom, and the type species of the genus Russula. It has a red, convex to flat cap up to 8.5 cm (3.3 in) in diameter, with a cuticle that can be peeled off almost to the centre. The gills are white to pale cream, and closely spaced. A smooth white stem measures up to 10.5 cm (4.1 in) long and 2.4 cm (0.9 in) thick. First described in 1774, the mushroom has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, where it grows on the ground in damp woodlands in a mycorrhizal association with conifers, especially pine.

<i>Lactarius torminosus</i> Fungus in the family Russulaceae from North Africa, northern Asia, Europe, and North America

Lactarius torminosus, commonly known as the woolly milkcap or the bearded milkcap, is a large species of agaric fungus. A common and widely distributed species, it is found in North Africa, northern Asia, Europe, and North America. It was first described scientifically by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 as an Agaricus, and later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1821 by Samuel Frederick Gray. A variety, L. torminosus var. nordmanensis, is known from the United States, Canada, and Switzerland. L. torminosus officially became the type species of Lactarius in 2011 after molecular studies prompted the taxonomic reshuffling of species between several Russulaceae genera.

<i>Lactarius scrobiculatus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius scrobiculatus, commonly known as the scrobiculate milk cap, is a basidiomycete fungus, belonging to the genus Lactarius, whose members are called "milk caps." Taxonomy places this species into subgenus Piperites, section Zonarii, subsection Scrobiculati. The distinctive fruiting bodies of this large fungus are locally common in forests throughout Europe and North America. It is regarded as inedible by some authors, but it is nevertheless eaten in parts of Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk-cap</span> Index of fungi with the same common name

Milk-cap is a common name that refers to mushroom-forming fungi of the genera Lactarius, Lactifluus, and Multifurca, all in the family Russulaceae. The common and eponymous feature of their fruitbodies is the latex ("milk") they exude when cut or bruised. Mushrooms with typical milk-cap characteristics are said to have a lactarioid habit. Some of them are edible.

<i>Russula brevipes</i> Species of fungus

Russula brevipes is a species of mushroom commonly known as the short-stemmed russula or the stubby brittlegill. It is widespread in North America, and was reported from Pakistan in 2006. The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with trees from several genera, including fir, spruce, Douglas-fir, and hemlock. Fruit bodies are white and large, with convex to funnel-shaped caps measuring 7–30 cm (3–12 in) wide set atop a thick stipe up to 8 cm (3 in) long. The gills on the cap underside are closely spaced and sometimes have a faint bluish tint. Spores are roughly spherical, and have a network-like surface dotted with warts.

<i>Lactifluus piperatus</i> Species of fungus

Lactifluus piperatus, commonly known as the blancaccio, is a semi-edible basidiomycete fungus of the genus Lactifluus. Despite being edible, it is not recommended by some because of its poor taste, though can be used as seasoning when dried. The fruiting body is a creamy-white mushroom which is funnel-shaped when mature, with exceptionally crowded gills. It bleeds a whitish peppery-tasting milk when cut. Widely distributed across Europe and eastern North America, Lactifluus piperatus has been accidentally introduced to Australia. Mycorrhizal, it forms a symbiotic relationship with various species of deciduous tree, including beech, and hazel, and fruiting bodies are found on the forest floor in deciduous woodland.

<i>Lactarius indigo</i> Edible fungus in the family Russulaceae from eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America

Lactarius indigo, commonly known as the indigo milk cap, indigo milky, the indigo lactarius, or the blue milk mushroom, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is a widely distributed species, growing naturally in eastern North America, East Asia, and Central America; it has also been reported in southern France. L. indigo grows on the ground in both deciduous and coniferous forests, where it forms mycorrhizal associations with a broad range of trees. The fruit body color ranges from dark blue in fresh specimens to pale blue-gray in older ones. The milk, or latex, that oozes when the mushroom tissue is cut or broken — a feature common to all members of the genus Lactarius — is also indigo blue, but slowly turns green upon exposure to air. The cap has a diameter of 5–15 cm (2–6 in), and the stem is 2–8 cm (0.8–3 in) tall and 1–2.5 cm (0.4–1.0 in) thick. It is an edible mushroom, and is sold in rural markets in China, Guatemala, and Mexico. In Honduras, the mushroom is called a chora, and is generally eaten with egg; generally as a side dish for a bigger meal.

<i>Lactarius sanguifluus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius sanguifluus, commonly known as the bloody milk cap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. First described from France in 1811, the species was given its current name by Elias Fries in 1838 when he transferred it to Lactarius. Found in Asia, Mediterranean Africa, and Europe, fruit bodies (mushrooms) grow scattered or in groups on the ground under conifers, especially Douglas fir. When bruised or cut, the fruit bodies ooze a blood-red to purple latex that slowly turns greenish upon exposure to air. The caps are orangish to reddish-brown, and become funnel-shaped with age. The gills are pinkish to purplish. Different forms have been described from Italy, but these are not universally accepted as distinct. L. sanguifluus mushrooms are edible, and sold in rural markets of Europe and Asia. Fruit bodies grown in polluted soil, including roadsides subject to heavy traffic, can bioaccumulate toxic heavy metals. Several sterols and pigment have been isolated and identified from the mushrooms.

<i>Lactarius subflammeus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius subflammeus, commonly known as the orange milk cap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It is found in western North America in the late summer and fall and is especially common in the Pacific Northwest, where it grows on the ground near conifers like pine and spruce. The brightly colored fruit bodies, which are slimy or sticky, have scarlet caps when young that soon fade to brilliant orange. The stem—typically longer than the width of the cap—is also bright orange but the gills are whitish. The mushroom secretes a whitish latex when it is cut or injured.

<i>Lactarius alnicola</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius alnicola, commonly known as the golden milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The fruit bodies produced by the fungus are characterized by a sticky, vanilla-colored cap up to 20 cm (7.9 in) wide with a mixture of yellow tones arranged in faint concentric bands. The stem is up to 5 cm (2.0 in) long and has yellow-brown spots. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white latex, which has an intensely peppery taste. The acrid taste of the fruit bodies renders them unpalatable. The fungus is found in the western United States and Mexico, where it grows in mycorrhizal associations with various coniferous trees species, such as spruce, pine and fir, and deciduous species such as oak and alder. It has also been collected in India. Two varieties have been named: var. pitkinensis, known from Colorado, and var. pungens, from Michigan.

<i>Lactarius repraesentaneus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius repraesentaneus, commonly known as the northern bearded milkcap, the northern milkcap, or the purple-staining bearded milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It has a northerly distribution, and is found in temperate regions of North America and Europe, associated with spruce trees. Distinguishing features of its fruit body include the large orange-yellow cap up to 18 cm (7.1 in) wide, cream to pale yellow gills, and a yellow coarsely-pitted stem that is up to 12 cm (4.7 in) long and 3 cm (1.2 in) thick. Cut fruit bodies ooze a white latex that will stain mushroom tissue lilac to purple. Several chemicals have been isolated and identified from the fruit bodies that can modify the growth of plants, and the mushroom also has antibiotic activity against Staphylococcus aureus. L. repraesentaneus is poisonous, and consumption causes stomach aches.

<i>Lactarius argillaceifolius</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius argillaceifolius is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The mushrooms produced by the fungus have convex to flattened drab lilac-colored caps that are up to 18 cm (7.1 in) wide. The cream-colored gills are closely spaced together and extend slightly down the length of the stem, which is up to 9 cm (3.5 in) long by 3.5 cm (1.4 in) thick. The mushroom produces an off-white latex when injured that stains the mushroom tissue brownish.

<i>Lactarius rufulus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius rufulus, commonly known as the rufous candy cap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The fruit bodies have fleshy brownish-red caps up to 10 cm (3.9 in) wide, and closely spaced pinkish-yellow gills. The stem is up to 12 cm (4.7 in) long and 3 cm (1.2 in) thick and colored similarly to the cap. The species, known only from California, Arizona, and Mexico, grows on the ground in leaf litter near oak trees. The fruit bodies resembles those of L. rufus, but L. rufulus tends to grow in clusters at a common base, rather than solitarily or in groups. A distinguishing microscopic characteristic is the near absence of large, spherical cells called sphaerocysts that are otherwise common in Lactarius species. Lactarius rufulus mushrooms are edible, and have an odor resembling maple syrup. They have been used to flavor confections and desserts.

<i>Lactarius vinaceorufescens</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius vinaceorufescens, commonly known as the yellow-staining milkcap or the yellow-latex milky, is a poisonous species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. It produces mushrooms with pinkish-cinnamon caps up to 12 cm (4.7 in) wide held by pinkish-white stems up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long. The closely spaced whitish to pinkish buff gills develop wine-red spots in age. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white latex that rapidly turns bright sulfur-yellow. The species, common and widely distributed in North America, grows in the ground in association with conifer trees. There are several other Lactarius species that bear resemblance to L. vinaceorufescens, but most can be distinguished by differences in staining reactions, macroscopic characteristics, or habitat.

Lactarius torminosulus is a member of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius, in the order Russulales. A European species, it was officially described in 1996 from collections made in Norway. Fruit bodies (mushrooms) are small to medium-sized, yellowish orange in colour. Young specimens have a hairy cap margin; these hairs slough off in maturity—a field characteristic that can be used to help distinguish this species from the similar Lactarius torminosus. The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with dwarf birch species.

<i>Lactarius fennoscandicus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius fennoscandicus is a member of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius in the order Russulales. It is found in Scandinavia, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with spruce trees.

<i>Lactarius porninsis</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius porninsis, the larch milkcap, is a member of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius in the order Russulales. It is found in Europe and Asia, where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with larch.

References

  1. 1 2 "Synonymy:Lactarius deterrimus Gröger". Index Fungorum. CAB International . Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  2. 1 2 3 Heilmann-Clausen, Jacob; Verbeken, Annemieke; Vesterholt, Jan (1998). The Genus Lactarius. Fungi of Northern Europe. Vol. 2. The Danish Mycological Society. pp. 150–153. ISBN   87-983581-4-6.
  3. 1 2 Jahn, Maria-A. (1960) [1959]. "Zum Geschmackswert des Kiefern- und Fichten-Blutreizkers" (PDF). Westfälische Pilzbriefe (in German). 2: 12–13.
  4. ↑ Eric Strittmatter: Die Art Lactarius deterrimus . On: Fungiworld.com Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine . Pilz-Taxa-Datenbank. 17 November 2010. Retrieved on 14 November 2011.
  5. ↑ "Lactarius fennoscandicus". Russulales News / mtsn.tn.it. Archived from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  6. ↑ Genaust, Helmut (2005). Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen (in German). Hamburg, Germany: Nikol. p. 204. ISBN   978-3-937872-16-2.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Gröger, Frieder (1968–1969). "Zur Kenntnis von Lactarius semisanguifluus Heim et Leclair" (PDF). Westfälische Pilzbriefe (in German). 7. Hermann Jahn: 3–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-31. Retrieved 2012-08-21.
  8. ↑ Holden EM. (2003). "Recommended English Names for Fungi in the UK" (PDF). British Mycological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-02.
  9. 1 2 3 Nuytinck, Jorinde; Verbeken, Annemieke (2007). "Worldwide phylogeny of Lactarius section Deliciosi inferred from ITS and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene sequences". Mycologia. 99 (6): 820–832. doi:10.3852/mycologia.99.6.820. PMID   18333506.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Nuytinck, Jorinde; Verbeken, Annammieke (2005). "Morphology and taxonomy of the European species in Lactarius sect. Deliciosi (Russulales)". Mycotaxon. 92: 125–168.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Laux, Hans E. (2002). Der Kosmos PilzAtlas (in German). Stuttgart, Germany: Franckh-Kosmos Verlag. p. 192. ISBN   3-440-10622-5.
  12. 1 2 3 Phillips, Roger. "Lactarius deterrimus". rogersmushrooms.com. RogersMushrooms. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
  13. ↑ Kaya, Abdullah (2009). "Macromycetes of Kahramanmaras Province (Turkey)" (PDF). Mycotaxon. 108: 31–34. doi:10.5248/108.31.
  14. ↑ Abraham, S.P.; Hachroo, J.L.; Kaul, T.N. (1980). "Fleshy fungi from the forests of Gulmarg India – 1". Kavaka. 8: 29–40. ISSN   0379-5179.
  15. ↑ Sultana, Kishwar; Rauf, Chaudhary Abdul; Riaz, Abid; Naz, Farah; Irshad, Gulshan; ul Haque, Muhammad Ifran (2011). "Check list of agarics of Kaghan Valley–1" (PDF). Pakistan Journal of Botany. 43 (3 ed.): 1777–1787.
  16. ↑ Mühlmann, O; Göbl, F. (2006). "Mycorrhiza of the host-specific Lactarius deterrimus on the roots of Picea abies and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi". Mycorrhiza. 16 (4): 245–250. doi:10.1007/s00572-006-0038-9. PMID   16496189. S2CID   86309482.
  17. 1 2 3 Krieglsteiner, German Josef; Gminder, Andreas; Winterhoff, Wulfard (2000). Die Großpilze Baden-Württembergs. Vol. 2. Stuttgart, Germany: Eugen Ulmer. p. 353. ISBN   3-8001-3531-0.
  18. 1 2 3 "Lactarius deterrimus in der PILZOEK-Datenbank". pilzoek.de (in German). Retrieved 13 September 2011.
  19. ↑ Yamashita, Satoshi; Hijii, Naoki (2007). "The role of fungal taxa and developmental stage of mushrooms in determining the composition of the mycophagous insect community in a Japanese forest" (PDF). European Journal of Entomology. 104 (2): 225–233. doi: 10.14411/eje.2007.035 . ISSN   1210-5759.
  20. ↑ Ševčík, Jan (2006). "Diptera associated with fungi in the Czech and Slovac Republics" (PDF). Časopis Slezského Zemského Muzea, Série A, Vědy Přírodní (Opava). 55: 1–84. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-15. Retrieved 2012-06-09.
  21. ↑ Escher, S.A.; Ekenstedt, J.; Pakalniškis, S.; Rimšaitė, J.; Saura, A. (2004). "The Drosophilidae (Diptera) of Lithuania" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 14 (2): 48–55. doi:10.1080/13921657.2004.10512579. ISSN   1392-1657. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-22. Retrieved 2012-06-09.
  22. ↑ Bernotienė, Rasa; Rimšaitė, Jolanta (2009). "Notes on moth flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) inhabiting fungal fruit bodies" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 19 (1 ed.): 60–63. doi:10.2478/v10043-009-0006-7. ISSN   1648-6919.[ permanent dead link ]
  23. ↑ Arnold, G.R.W. (1968–1969). "Gigantische Askosporen bei Peckiella lateritia (Fr.) Maire" (PDF). Westfälische Pilzbriefe (in German). 7: 102–104.
  24. ↑ Rogerson, Clark T.; Samuels, Gary J. (1994). "Agaricicolous species of Hypomyces". Mycologia. 86 (6): 839–866. doi:10.2307/3760597. JSTOR   3760597.
  25. ↑ Jordan, Peter (2006). Field Guide to Edible Mushrooms of Britain and Europe. New Holland Publishers. p. 69. ISBN   978-1-84537-419-8.
  26. ↑ Anke, H.; Bergendorff, O.; Sterner, O. (1989). "Assay of the biological activities of guaiane sesquiterpenoids isolated from the fruit bodies of edible Lactarius species". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 27 (6): 393–397. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(89)90145-2. PMID   2792969.
  27. ↑ Heß, Dieter (1988). Pflanzenphysiologie 8. Auflage; Molekulare und biochemisch-physiologische Grundlagen von Stoffwechsel, Entwicklung und Ökologie (in German). Stuttgart, Germany: UTB Ulmer. pp. 195 et seq. ISBN   3-8001-2569-2.
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