Oemona hirta

Last updated

Lemon tree borer
COLE Cerambycidae Oemona hirta.png
O. hirta by Des Helmore
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Coleoptera
Suborder:
Polyphaga
Superfamily:
Chrysomeloidea
Family:
Cerambycidae
Subfamily:
Cerambycinae
Genus:
Oemona

Fabricius, 1775
Species:
O. hirta
Binomial name
Oemona hirta
Fabricius, 1775

Oemona hirta, the lemon tree borer, also known as the whistling beetle or the singing beetle, is a longhorn beetle endemic to New Zealand. [1] Its larvae are generalist feeders, boring into the wood of a wide variety of trees, native and introduced. When citrus orchards were first established in New Zealand, this beetle started inflicting serious damage, and so gained the name "lemon tree borer". [2] Four species within the genus Oemona have been identified, suggesting that more species could be found. [3] When disturbed by predators or humans, the adult beetle stridulates creating a "rasp" or "squeak" sound by rubbing its thorax and head together against an area of thin ridges. [4] [5] Māori would eat a liquid called "pia manuka", which was produced by manuka trees when its wood was damaged by the larvae. [6] When Captain Cook first arrived in NZ, his naturalists, Banks and Solander, collected a lemon tree borer in their first collection between 1769 and 1771. [7] This oldest collected specimen can be found in the British Museum. A few years after the first collection, the species would be first described by the Danish naturalist Fabricius in 1775.

Contents

Description

Lemon tree borer, showing the distinctive parallel ridges on the thorax Lemon tree borer by Tom (cropped).jpg
Lemon tree borer, showing the distinctive parallel ridges on the thorax

Adults: The lemon tree borer is a plain looking, medium to large sized beetle, reaching 15 to 25 mm (0.6–1.0 in) long. [8] [9] [2] It has a slender body with elongated antennae. [8] Antennae are usually the same length as or longer than the body, and able to sit in front of, or curve backwards against the body. [10] Adults can vary from red-brown to almost black in colour, with patches of pale yellow hairs on the head and scutellum, which is a small spot on their back where the thorax joins the elytra (hard wing cases). [5] [11] Females are larger and heavier than males, but have proportionally shorter antennae, but the sex can only be reliably determined by looking at the genitalia using a microscope. [5] [9] [2] [8] A distinctive feature of O. hirta is the transverse wrinkling on the dorsal surface of the pronotum; this is especially distinctive on males.

Eggs: White and large (2.0-2.2mm) with a fine waxy surface pattern, they are laid singly in leaf or stem junctions, pruning and cicada scars, damaged bark or dead twigs on the outer edge of trees. [5] [9]

Larvae: Their skin is white to pale cream with orange to brown gut contents, growing 25-40mm long. [5] [9] Body is cylindrical with each thoracic and abdominal segment having a swollen transverse ridge; an enlarged head holds gouge-like mandibles (biting jaws) which are large but short and dark brown to black. [5] [9] [12] Many minute rigid brown hairs line the lateral margins, especially towards the head. [5] [2] When disturbed, larvae are able to move surprisingly fast due to dorsal and ventral muscle ridges gripping its surroundings. [5]

Pupae: Approximately 20-25mm long. [5] Pupa are a pale reddish clay colour with darker shades on the wing cases. [2] The pupa chamber is a short length of larval tunnel with tightly packed wood shaving plugs at each end. [9] [2] The beetle shape is more obvious in the pupal stage, showing long antennae folded adjacent to the body and larger legs bended in. While the individual is pupating, it can twist around the chamber using small black spines on its abdomen. [5]

Life cycle

Lemon tree borers have a long life cycle, averaging around two years, [13] with the majority of their life spent as larvae. [14] Eggs are singly laid between September and January and hatch in as little as a few days to two weeks, with most hatching between 9–13 days. [8] [9] Once hatched larvae immediately start tunnelling into the wood, going first into sapwood and then heartwood to around 10-20mm deep. [8] [9] Larvae occur in low density, with usually only two being present per tree. [15] They eat the wood, creating long tunnels with side galleries and holes for excretion of frass and aeration to discourage fungal growth. [9] [5] They bore longitudinally into the stems, going towards the main stem or branch. Occasionally larvae will bore around a branch, causing girdling. Lemon tree borers can sometimes be found in dead trees, but prefer living trees as they require a certain level of humidity and nutrition to properly pupate to adulthood. The larval stage can last for one to two years, depending on the environment: larvae occurring in milder environments with a shorter winter period will pupate faster. [16] Larvae achieve modest growth over their first summer reaching around 15mm and mine approximately 150mm. [5] The larvae slow in activity over the winter months but increase substantially around October when temperatures become warmer. [5] Increased frass occurs in their second summer as larvae reach full size. [5] The pupal stage lasts between 2–3 weeks but can take up to several weeks, and begins late May to early November with larvae creating a small chamber within their tunnel. [9] [5] Adults emerge early spring to late summer with the majority emerging October to December. [14] Newly emerged adults will remain in their pupal cells until their integument has hardened. Once they emerge, they become sexually mature around four days later (although this varies depending on environmental conditions). Adults feed on pollen and nectar of plants. They are mostly nocturnal, foraging and mating at night. During the day, they hide amongst vegetation. [17] Adults may live for around 2 months but often die after reproduction. [5]

Mating behaviour

Adults reach sexual maturity approximately 3–4 days after emergence, but usually take around 10 days before being able to reproduce. [16] Oemona hirta, like other cerambycid beetles, don't produce sex pheromones to attract a potential mate over long distance; instead they tend to meet at oviposition locations where mating occurs. [8] Mating usually occurs at night with males having been observed to wander in search of a mate and stumble across a female more than actively locate a mate. [8] Pre-mounting courtship displays appear to not occur and males quickly mount the females after coming into contact with them. [8] Lemon tree borer have a comparatively long mating period with potential multiple mating sessions occurring. [8] However, the final mating appears to take the longest, with total mating taking around 50 minutes. [8] Majority of males conduct mate-guarding as post-mating behaviour for approximately 20 minutes after mating by staying on the back of the female or remaining close by to ensure his sperm alone will father their off-spring. [8] [14] Whenever the female is unresponsive, trying to move away from the male's advances, he would nip the female's antennae of lick the front of her thorax or elytra. The female would then calm down and raise her abdomen up again for him to continue. This is falls in the middle of mating behaviours of other longhorn species where the male will either mate with the female for a few hours without post-mating and guarding, or mate for a few minutes then leave to allow other males to mate with her. [18] Once the male withdraws the female has been observed to remain stationary for a short period of time before starting oviposition alone. [8] Females lay eggs in cracks or wounds in bark or on branches including fresh pruning cuts. [9] Females can produce over 50 eggs in their life span and lay only around 66% of eggs produced. [14] [19]

Habitat and distribution

Oemona hirta on lichen Lemon tree borer and lichen by Shaun Lee.jpg
Oemona hirta on lichen

Family distribution -

Oemona hirta belong to a large family of longhorn beetles, called Cerambycidae. Worldwide, the group contains over 33,000 species, within NZ there could be around 200-300 species. [20] [21] The longhorn family have significant impacts to the economy, these impacts are mainly due to the larva's ability to process and damage hard wood with their specialised mandibles. [20] This makes them high on international security threat lists as new introductions from accidental imports would result in devastating loss to timber and horticultural industries.

Global range -  

Oemona hirta is endemic to New Zealand (NZ) and has not established overseas, but there have been a few close occasions. [3] This includes individuals being identified in the UK by Food & Environment Research Agency in 1983, and again in 2010. [22] The latest specimen was found in an imported wisteria plant from NZ and classified as a devastating pest for the agricultural industry, if it were to settle.

New Zealand range -

Within NZ, lemon tree borers are native and the most commonly found longhorn beetle in NZ. [23] Until recently, it was assumed that they were widespread throughout New Zealand, but they are mainly located in the North Island, and the North-West Nelson region of the South Island (Crowe, A. 2015; Lindsey & Morris, 2013). [24] [5] It has been collected from sea level up to altitudes of over 1,200 m (3,900 ft), as well as several offshore islands such as Kapiti Island and Mokopuna Island. [25] Like most other longhorn beetles, their good flying ability allows them to colonise favourable habitat, and spread far and wide. [26] The beetles mainly fly in the early morning and evening when most mating occurs.

Diet

Like their name suggests, this species larvae prefer to eat living vascular tissue of citrus trees, but they are not specialised to citrus. Prior to European settlers introducing exotic plants and cultivated trees over 150 years ago, premature specimen lived in native trees. [27] [28] Now they are a highly polyphagous species invading native and introduced host trees and vines totalling over 200 species from 81 families. [17] [18] This shows how adaptable the species can be, indicating that they will be in NZ for many years to come. [11] This creates a nuisance to cultivated orchards and tree nurseries in the North Island who can frequently be invaded. Adults can be found in orchards, and gardens feeding on plants too, but are far less destructive than the larvae, instead consuming pollen and nectar of native and exotic flowers. [3] [20]

Common host plants

Exotic - Citrus, lemon, orange, tangelos, grape, apple, gooseberry, tamarillo, cherry, fig, peach, pomegranate, plum, blueberry, persimmon, camellia, elm, wisteria, willow, hakea, poplar, tree lucerne, almond, walnut, chestnut, and macadamia. Gorse is also one of the hosts that they're known to target providing one of the few benefits to controlling the weed in NZ. [6] [28] [8] [14] [16]

Native - Kowhai, rangiora, mahoe, tauhinu, tarata, Coprosma rotundifolia, and manuka. [11] [27] [28] [12]

Agricultural pest

This species is of great economic importance and has become an agricultural pest due to the broad host diet and habit of the larvae, which bore into a wide range of host trees, both native and exotic. [29] Some important crop species are lemon (Citrus spp.), apple (Malus spp.), almond (Amygdalus spp.), chestnut (Castanea sativa and C. crenata), persimmon (Diospyros kaki), [30] cherry (Prunus spp.), walnut (Juglans regia), and grape (Vitis vinifera). [31] This has made them a substantial commercial and biosecurity pest as their potential for wide spread crop damage both in New Zealand and overseas is high. [16] [14] As such, quarantine regulations have to be observed when exporting these crops overseas to reduce the risk of O. hirta being accidentally introduced, as they would be able to establish quickly. [16] O. hirta is a threat to the forestry industry, commercial fruit crops, and ornamental garden shrubs. [17] This beetle can be accidentally introduced by movement of plants for planting. It was first intercepted in the United Kingdom in 1983 and again in 2010 on Wisteria plants at two different plant nurseries. [17]

Plant symptoms -

The first symptom of an infestation by larvae is the wilting of foliage and dieback, but this may not always be apparent immediately. Trees will have excretion holes measuring 1–3 mm (0.039–0.118 in), with frass visible on the outside. [32] As the larva tunnels through the living branches of young hardwood trees and vines, the stems weaken, dry and break. This reduces the plants health rapidly, or even killing the tree over time if there is a manifestation. [16] [4] [33] Boring through the stem interrupts the sap flow which results in die-back in the late summer. [5] [28] It can also make the host susceptible to fungal infection from weakened stems and holes created by the larva.

Control of Oemona hirta

Lemon tree borers are notoriously hard to control. [19] Larvae are not easily seen as they live deep in the wood making their natural behaviour hard to observe and creating difficulty for people to control them as a pest. Physical control can be done by removal of infested wood, but this is very labour-intensive. [8] The usual way of dealing with insect pests is to spray chemicals, this may be effective for the adults, however this is time-consuming and ineffective as the larvae are internally hidden. [14] In New Zealand, the best way to control the lemon tree borer is through preventive and curative methods. [17] To reduce infestations, plants affected need to be regularly pruned, with the offcuts removed and burned. However, this shouldn't be done when females are laying eggs as it will create more suitable places for larvae to infect, [28] so painting the ends of trimmed branches can be used to discourage reinfection. [28] [9] Another thing that can make Oemona hirta more difficult to remove it that larvae can continue maturing to adulthood in pruned twigs/branches on the ground. However, the required conditions for survival would be that they were at an old enough stage that they could continue eating before the water and nutrients decay. Ways to enhance biocontrol are being investigated, although it is hard as the stems they live in protect them from most predators. However, their natural predator, the native parasitoid wasps are being investigated.

Predators and disease

Lemon tree borer parasite (Xanthocryptus novozealandicus) Lemon Tree Borer Parasite (Xanthocryptus novozealandicus) on blackberry leaf.jpg
Lemon tree borer parasite ( Xanthocryptus novozealandicus )

The main natural predators of lemon tree borers are solitary parasitoid wasps, two ichneumond wasp species (Xanthocryptus novozealandicus and Campoplex sp.) and one braconid wasp species (Apsicolpus hudsoni). [19] [11] The parasitic ichneumonid wasp Xanthocryptus novozealandicus is native to New Zealand and being researched as a potential biological control agent. The female wasps parasitise wood-boring beetles, including lemon tree borer, by injecting an egg into the larvae which then grows and consumes the slowly dying grub. [19] Females do this by piercing through the wood with their ovipositor. X. novozealandicus prefers attacking larvae in their second year of growth. [34] Female wasps appear to assign their offspring according to the size of the larvae, in most cases larger larvae will host female offspring and smaller larvae host male offspring. [19] This is suggested to be due to the larger size of the adult female wasp compared to the male. [19] On examination of the remaining larval galleries it could be seen that upon being parasitised that larvae development halts. [19] Additionally, a parasitic fungi Cordyceps aemonae has been documented to affect larvae. [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beetle</span> Order of insects

Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera, in the superorder Holometabola. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 described species, is the largest of all orders, constituting almost 40% of described insects and 25% of all known animal species; new species are discovered frequently, with estimates suggesting that there are between 0.9 and 2.1 million total species. Found in almost every habitat except the sea and the polar regions, they interact with their ecosystems in several ways: beetles often feed on plants and fungi, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other invertebrates. Some species are serious agricultural pests, such as the Colorado potato beetle, while others such as Coccinellidae eat aphids, scale insects, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Longhorn beetle</span> Family of beetles characterized by long antennae

The longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae), also known as long-horned or longicorns, are a large family of beetles, with over 35,000 species described. Most species are characterized by extremely long antennae, which are often as long as or longer than the beetle's body. In various members of the family, however, the antennae are quite short and such species can be difficult to distinguish from related beetle families such as the Chrysomelidae. The scientific name of this beetle family goes back to a figure from Greek mythology: after an argument with nymphs, the shepherd Cerambus was transformed into a large beetle with horns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emerald ash borer</span> Species of beetle

The emerald ash borer, also known by the acronym EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species. Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an invasive species and is highly destructive to ash trees native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of insecticides and biological control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cleridae</span> Checkered beetles

Cleridae are a family of beetles of the superfamily Cleroidea. They are commonly known as checkered beetles. The family Cleridae has a worldwide distribution, and a variety of habitats and feeding preferences.

<i>Hypothenemus hampei</i> Species of beetle

Hypothenemus hampei, the coffee berry borer, is a small beetle native to Africa. It is the most harmful insect pest of coffee worldwide. Spanish common names of the insect include barrenador del café, gorgojo del café, and broca del café.

<i>Megacyllene robiniae</i> Species of beetle

Megacyllene robiniae, commonly known as the locust borer, is a species of longhorn beetle endemic to eastern North America. It is a serious pest of Robinia pseudoacacia, the black locust tree, with which it is sympatric.

<i>Cryptolaemus montrouzieri</i> Beetle that eats pest mealybugs

Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, common name mealybug ladybird or mealybug destroyer, is a species of ladybird beetle native to eastern Australia. The beetle feeds on mealybugs and other scale insects, and is used to control those pests on citrus orchards worldwide.

<i>Xanthocryptus novozealandicus</i> Species of wasp

Xanthocryptus novozealandicus, the lemon tree borer parasite, is a wasp in the family Ichneumonidae. It is a native insect of New Zealand. It is also found in Australia and New Guinea. Females hunt for larvae of wood-boring beetles around March, including the lemon tree borer, a native cerambycid that tunnels into citrus trees, grapes and many native species. When a suitable host is found, the female pushes her ovipositor through the wood and injects her eggs into the grub. This has the incidental benefit of helping to control some pests. X. novozealandicus prefers to prey on second year lemon tree borer larvae. This specific parasite prefers to prey on larger second year larvae due to its larger size.

<i>Tetrastichus planipennisi</i> Species of wasp

Tetrastichus planipennisi is a parasitic non-stinging wasp of the family Eulophidae which is native to North Asia. It is a parasitoid of the emerald ash borer, an invasive species which has destroyed tens of millions of ash trees in its introduced range in North America. As part of the campaign against the emerald ash borer (EAB), American scientists in conjunction with the Chinese Academy of Forestry searched since 2003 for its natural enemies in the wild leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasps, including Tetrastichus planipennisi which is a gregarious endoparasitoid of EAB larvae on Manchurian Ash and has been recorded to attack and kill up to 50 percent of EAB larvae.

<i>Spathius agrili</i> Species of wasp

Spathius agrili is a parasitic non-stinging wasp of family Braconidae which is native to North Asia. It is a parasitoid of the emerald ash borer, an invasive species which has destroyed tens of millions of ash trees in its introduced range in North America. As part of the campaign against the emerald ash borer (EAB), American scientists in conjunction with the Chinese Academy of Forestry began searching in 2003 for its natural enemies in the wild, leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasp species, including Spathius agrili. S. agrili was discovered in Tianjin, China where it is a prevalent parasitoid of EAB larvae in stands of an introduced ash species, and an endemic ash species. S. agrili has been recorded to attack and kill up to 90 percent of EAB larvae.

<i>Neoclytus acuminatus</i> Species of beetle

Neoclytus acuminatus, the red-headed ash borer, is a common North American species in the longhorn beetle family (Cerambycidae).

<i>Eldana</i> Genus of moths

Eldana is a genus of moths of the family Pyralidae containing only one species, the African sugar-cane borer, which is commonly found in Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Mozambique, Sierra Leone and South Africa. Adults have pale brown forewings with two small spots in the centre and light brown hindwings, and they have a wingspan of 35mm. This species is particularly relevant to humans because the larvae are a pest of the Saccharum species as well as several grain crops such as sorghum and maize. Other recorded host plants are cassava, rice and Cyperus species. When attacking these crops, E. saccharina bores into the stems of their host plant, causing severe damage to the crop. This behavior is the origin of the E. saccharrina's common name, the African sugar-cane borer. The African sugar-cane borer is a resilient pest, as it can survive crop burnings. Other methods such as intercropping and parasitic wasps have been employed to prevent further damage to crops.

<i>Tetropium fuscum</i> Species of beetle

Tetropium fuscum, the brown spruce longhorn beetle, is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1787. Tetropium fuscum is native to Europe and Northern Asia, and has been introduced to Nova Scotia, Canada. Brown spruce longhorn is a pest of spruce trees.

<i>Prionus californicus</i> Species of beetle

Prionus californicus, commonly known as the California root borer, is a species of insect in the longhorn beetle family (Cerambycidae). It is native to the American west where it is often a pest of orchard and vine crops.

<i>Monochamus scutellatus</i> Species of beetle

Monochamus scutellatus, commonly known as the white-spotted sawyer or spruce sawyer or spruce bug, is a common wood-boring beetle found throughout North America. It is a species native to North America.

<i>Phoracantha semipunctata</i> Species of beetle

Phoracantha semipunctata, the Australian Eucalyptus longhorn, is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. Native to Australia, it has now spread to many parts of the world, including practically all countries where tree species of Eucalyptus have been introduced. It has been classified as an invasive pest species of Eucalyptus outside Australia.

<i>Xylosandrus compactus</i> Species of beetle

Xylosandrus compactus is a species of ambrosia beetle. Common names for this beetle include black twig borer, black coffee borer, black coffee twig borer and tea stem borer. The adult beetle is dark brown or black and inconspicuous; it bores into a twig of a host plant and lays its eggs, and the larvae create further tunnels through the plant tissues. These beetles are agricultural pests that damage the shoots of such crops as coffee, tea, cocoa and avocado.

<i>Prionus laticollis</i> Species of beetle

Prionus laticollis, also known as the broad-necked root borer or broad necked prionus, is a root-boring longhorn beetle described by Dru Drury in 1773. It is widespread throughout eastern North America: its range covers a vast swath from Quebec in the northeast to Arkansas in the southwest.

<i>Aeolesthes sarta</i> Species of beetle

Aeolesthes sarta, commonly known as the city longhorn beetle, is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae, the longhorn beetles.

<i>Zorion guttigerum</i> Species of insect

Zorion guttigerum, commonly known as the flower long-horn beetle, is an endemic species of beetle in New Zealand. It is found on the flowers of many plant species and feeds on nectar and pollen.

References

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  13. ↑ Dumbleton, L. J. (1957). "The immature stages of some New Zealand longhorn beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)". Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 84: 611–628.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wang, Q.; Shi, G; Davis, L. K. (1998). "Reproductive Potential and Daily Reproductive Rhytems of Oemona hirta (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 91 (6): 1360–1365. doi: 10.1093/jee/91.6.1360 .
  15. ↑ Rohitha, B. H.; Hartley, T.; Franklin, S. J. (1993). "Lemon tree borer damage on persimmon". Proceedings of the New Zealand Plant Protection Conference: 141.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wang, Qiao; Davis, Lorraine K.; Rogers, David J.; Song, Deping; Shi, Guanglu; Chen, Xiang (2002). "Development, Survival, Body Weight, Longevity, and Reproductive Potential of Oemena hirta (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Under Different Rearing Conditions". Journal of Economic Entomology. 95 (3): 563–569. doi: 10.1603/0022-0493-95.3.563 . ISSN   0022-0493. PMID   12076001. S2CID   25375765.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 "Pest Risk Analysis for Oemona hirta". European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. EPPO. September 2014.
  18. 1 2 Wang, Q., & Davis, L. (2005). Mating Behavior of Oemona hirta (F.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Cerambycinae) in Laboratory Conditions. Journal of Insect Behavior, 18(2), 187-191.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wang, Q.; Shi, G. (2001). "Host preference and sex allocation of three hymenopteran parasitoid species (Ichneumonidae and Braconidae) of a longicorn pest, Oemona hirta (Fabr.) (Col., Cerambycidae)". Journal of Applied Entomology. 125 (8): 463–467. doi:10.1046/j.1439-0418.2001.00582.x. ISSN   0931-2048. S2CID   85194142.
  20. 1 2 3 Slipinski, A., & Escalona, H. (2013). Australian Longhorn Beetles : (Coleoptera - Cerambycidae) - Introduction and Subfamily Lamiinae. Victoria: CSIRO PUBLISHING.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ Klimaszewski, J., Watt, J. C, & Manaaki Whenua-Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd (1997). Coleoptera : Family-group review and keys to identification (Fauna of New Zealand ; no. 37). Lincoln, N.Z.: Manaaki Whenua Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Anonymous (2010). FERA confirms first UK lemon tree borer since 1983. Horticulture Week, 6.
  23. ↑ Early, J. (2009). Know Your New Zealand... Insects & Spiders. New Holland Publishers (NZ) Ltd.
  24. ↑ Crowe, A. (2002). Which New Zealand Insect?. Penguin Group (NZ) Ltd.
  25. ↑ Lu, Wen; Wang, Qiao (2005). "Systematics of the New Zealand longicorn beetle genus Oemona Newman with discussion of the taxonomic position of the Australian species, O. simplex White (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Cerambycinae)". Zootaxa. 971 (1): 1. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.971.1.1. ISSN   1175-5334. S2CID   89359713.
  26. ↑ Clearwater, J. R. (1981). "Lemon tree borer, Oemona hirta (Fabricius), life cycle". Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Life Cycle Sheets. 33. doi:10.7931/dl1-dis-105-33.
  27. 1 2 Manson, D., & McDowall, L. H. (1960). Native beetles (Nature in New Zealand). Wellington [N.Z.]: Reed.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shaw, B. D.; Christeller, J. T. (2009). "Characterization of the proteases in the mid of the xylophagous larvae of Oemona hirta (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)". Insect Science. 16 (5): 381–386. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2009.01274.x . S2CID   84420927.
  29. ↑ Wang, Qiao; Davis, Lorraine K.; Rogers, David J.; Song, Deping; Shi, Guanglu; Chen, Xiang (1 June 2002). "Development, Survival, Body Weight, Longevity, and Reproductive Potential of Oemena hirta (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Under Different Rearing Conditions". Journal of Economic Entomology. 95 (3): 563–569. doi: 10.1603/0022-0493-95.3.563 . ISSN   0022-0493. PMID   12076001. S2CID   25375765.
  30. ↑ Rohitha, B. H.; Hartley, T.; Franklin, S. J. (1993). "Lemon tree borer damage on persimmon". Proceedings of the New Zealand Plant Protection Conference. New Zealand Plant Protection Society Inc.: 141.
  31. ↑ Spiller, D. M. (1982). A catalogue (1860–1960) of New Zealand insects and their host plants. New Zealand Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research. ISBN   0477066933. OCLC   10456569.
  32. ↑ "Ask an Expert | Lemon Tree Borer". www.weekendgardener.co.nz. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
  33. ↑ Zondag, R. (1964). Insect Pests of Forest Nurseries and Young Plantations in New Zealand.
  34. ↑ Scott, R. R., ed. (1984). New Zealand pest and beneficial insects. Canterbury, N.Z.: Lincoln University College of Agriculture. p. 288. ISBN   0864760000.
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