Permanent Structured Cooperation

Last updated
Permanent Structured Cooperation
Formation2018
TypeFramework for structural integration within the Common Security and Defence Policy, based on Article 42.6 of the Treaty on European Union
Membership
26 member states
Website https://pesco.europa.eu/

The Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) is the part of the European Union's (EU) security and defence policy (CSDP) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration (the exception being Malta). Based on Article 42.6 and Protocol 10 of the Treaty on European Union, introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, PESCO was first initiated in 2017. [1] The initial integration within the PESCO format is a number of projects which launched in 2018. [2]

Contents

Together with the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD), the European Defence Fund and the Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC) it forms a comprehensive defence package for the EU. [1]

PESCO is similar to enhanced co-operation in other policy areas, in the sense that integration does not require that all EU member states participate.

History

Pre-activation

In 2009 the Treaty of Lisbon (signing depicted) entered into force, enabling permanent structured cooperation in defence between a subset of willing member states. Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (04).jpg
In 2009 the Treaty of Lisbon (signing depicted) entered into force, enabling permanent structured cooperation in defence between a subset of willing member states.

PESCO was first written into the European Constitution under Article III-312, which failed ratification, and then into the Treaty of Lisbon of 2009. It added the possibility for those members whose military capabilities fulfil higher criteria and which have made more binding commitments to one another in this area with a view to the most demanding missions shall establish permanent structured cooperation (PESCO) within the EU framework. PESCO was seen as the way to enable the common defence foreseen in Article 42, but the scepticism towards further integration that had arisen around the rejection of the European Constitution meant its activation was unlikely. It was termed, by President Jean-Claude Juncker, the Lisbon Treaty's "sleeping beauty". [3] [4]

In the 2010s, the geopolitical landscape around the EU began to change, triggering a series of crises. The Libyan Civil War, the Syrian Civil War and the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant caused the European migrant crisis. Russia intervened in Ukraine in 2014, annexing Crimea and triggering an ongoing conflict in the country over the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement. In 2016, Donald Trump, who was elected as President of the United States, was critical of NATO allies, even refusing on several occasions to back the mutual defence clause; and the United Kingdom, one of the EU's two largest military powers, voted in a referendum to withdraw from the EU. [4] [5]

This new environment, while very different from the one PESCO was designed for, gave new impetus to European defence cooperation. The withdrawal of the UK, historically an opponent of that cooperation, gave further hope of success. At a rally in Bavaria, Angela Merkel argued that: “The times in which we could completely depend on others are, to a certain extent, over ... I’ve experienced that in the last few days. We Europeans truly have to take our fate into our own hands.” In late 2016, the EU put defence co-operation on its post-Brexit Bratislava and Rome declarations. [4] [5]

There was some disagreement between France and Germany about the nature of PESCO. France foresaw a small but ambitious group with serious capabilities making major practical leaps forward; while Germany, weary of further divisions in the EU, wanted a more inclusive approach that could potentially include all states, regardless of their military capability or willingness to integrate. Further, for Germany, it was about building capabilities and giving a post-Brexit signal of unity, whereas France was focused on operations and looking for help for its overstretched African deployments. Their compromise was to re-imagine PESCO as a process. PESCO would be inclusive, but not all states had to take part in all projects and progress would be phased allowing the development of new, common capabilities without having to resolve larger differences on end-goals first. Further, states would not need to already have capabilities, but merely pledge to work towards them. This allowed France's idea of improving military capabilities without shutting out states who did not already attain the threshold. [6] [7]

Activation

On 13 November 2017, Foreign and Defence Ministers from 23 EU states signed the Joint notification on setting up PESCO in a Foreign Affairs Council chaired by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs, Federica Mogherini. Signing the joint notification on the permanent structured cooperation (PESCO) (24517741968).jpg
On 13 November 2017, Foreign and Defence Ministers from 23 EU states signed the Joint notification on setting up PESCO in a Foreign Affairs Council chaired by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs, Federica Mogherini.

On 7 September 2017, an agreement was made between EU foreign affairs ministers to move forward with PESCO with 10 initial projects. [8] [9] [1] [10] The agreement was signed on 13 November by 23 of the 28 member states. Ireland and Portugal notified the High Representative and the Council of the European Union of their desire to join PESCO on 7 December 2017 [11] and PESCO was activated by the 25 states on 11 December 2017 with the approval of a Council Decision. [12] [13] Denmark did not participate as (prior to its abolition in July 2022) it had an opt-out from the Common Security and Defence Policy, nor did the United Kingdom, which withdrew from the EU in 2020. [14] [15] Malta opted out as well, due to concerns it might conflict with its neutrality. [16] [17] As per Article 46 of the TEU, non-participating EU member states can request to join by notifying the Council, which will approve based on a qualified majority of participating member states.

Principles

Those Member States whose military capabilities fulfil higher criteria and which have made more binding commitments to one another in this area with a view to the most demanding missions shall establish permanent structured cooperation within the Union framework. Such cooperation shall be governed by Article 46. It shall not affect the provisions of Article 43.

— Article 42.6 of Treaty on European Union

Those states shall notify their intention to the Council and to the High Representative. The Council then adopts, by qualified majority a decision establishing PESCO and determining the list of participating Member States. Any other member state that fulfills the criteria and wishes to participate can join the PESCO following the same procedure, but in the voting for the decision only the states already part of the PESCO will participate. If a participating state no longer fulfills the criteria a decision suspending its participation is taken by the same procedure as for accepting new participants, but excluding the concerned state from the voting procedure. If a participating state wishes to withdraw from PESCO it just notifies the Council to remove it from the list of participants. All other decisions and recommendations of the Council concerning PESCO issues unrelated to the list of participants require a unanimous vote of the participating states. [3]

The criteria established in the PESCO Protocol are the following: [3]

Participating armed forces

The following member states have announced their intention of participating in PESCO:

As per Article 46 of the TEU, the following non-participating EU member states can request to join by notifying the Council, which will approve based on a qualified majority of participating member states:

Denmark

Flag of Denmark.svg Denmark originally had an opt-out from participating in the common defence policy. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Danish parliament adopted a proposal in favour of the country participating in the Common Security and Defence Policy, including the European Defence Agency and PESCO, on 8 April 2022. [19] Danish voters approved ending the opt-out in a 1 June 2022 referendum, [20] which became effective 1 July. [21] Subsequently the country proceeded to consider participating in PESCO, [22] which was approved by Parliament in March 2023. [23] [24] The Council of the EU approved Denmark joining PESCO on 23 May 2023. [25] [26] [27]

Non-EU participants

Since November 2020, third countries can also participate in PESCO.

Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Flag of Norway.svg Flag of the United States.svg Canada, Norway, and the United States have applied to participate in the project to improve military mobility in Europe. Norway had been active in past EU military operations. [28] [29] The EU governments will soon decide on the applications in a multi-stage admission process. [30]

Flag of Turkey.svg In May 2021, Turkey (Turkey) applied to participate in the Military Mobility project, but this was opposed by Austria in addition to the existing tensions with Greece and Cyprus. [31] [32] In June 2022, Finland and Sweden committed to "support the fullest possible involvement of Turkey and other non-EU Allies in the existing and prospective initiatives of the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy, including Turkey's participation in the PESCO Project on Military Mobility" in a trilateral memorandum agreed to at the 2022 Madrid summit to facilitate Turkey's ratification of Finland and Sweden's NATO membership application. [33] [34]

Flag of the United Kingdom.svg On 6 October 2022, at the 1st European Political Community Summit, British Prime Minister Liz Truss committed the United Kingdom to joining PESCO and its Military Mobility project. [35] [36] [37] On 15 November 2022, the Council of the EU invited the UK to participate in the Military Mobility project. [38]

Neutral states

PESCO includes two of the three EU states that describe themselves as neutral (Austria and Ireland), and is designed to be as inclusive as possible by allowing states to opt in or out as their unique foreign policies allow. Some members of the Irish Parliament considered Ireland joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. The measure was passed, with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cyber security and peace keeping ... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets." [39] While critics of Ireland's participation point to the commitment to increase defence spending, the government has made clear that the 2% commitment is collective, and not for each state individually. The Irish government has made clear that any defence spending increase by Ireland would be minor. [40] Malta, the only neutral state not to participate, argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops, in order to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality. [18]

Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg In Switzerland, an opinion poll conducted two months after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine showed support for the country joining PESCO. [41]

NATO

While PESCO was formed in part due to doubts over the United States' commitment to NATO, [3] officials stress that PESCO will be complementary to NATO security rather than in competition with it. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg also highlighted how Military Mobility is a key example of NATO and EU co-operation. [42] [43]

Criticism and lobbying by the United States

The United States has voiced concerns and published 'warnings' about PESCO several times, which many analysts believe to be a sign that the United States fears a loss of influence in Europe, as a militarily self-sufficient EU would make NATO increasingly irrelevant. [44] [45] [46] [47] Alongside better military cooperation, PESCO also seeks to enhance the defence industry of member states and create jobs within the EU, which several US politicians have criticised over fears of losing revenue from EU states (on average, the United States sells over €1 billion in weapons to EU countries per year). [48] [45] [49] According to Françoise Grossetête, a member of the European Parliament from 1994 to 2019, the US is lobbying strongly against increased military cooperation between EU member states, going as far as to directly invite MEPs to 'private dinners' to try to convince them to vote against any directives or laws that would seek to strengthen military cooperation within the EU. [50]

Despite opposition to PESCO, the United States expressed its desire to participate in the Military Mobility project in 2021. [51] European analysts[ who? ] have suggested that this might pose an attempt to undermine an independent European defence policy from within. [52] [53]

Governance

The European Defence Agency and European External Action Service act as PESCO's secretariat. [54] The projects are incentivised by the European Commission’s European Defence Fund. There is a two-layer governance structure:

Council level
Responsible for the overall policy direction and decision-making including as regards the assessment mechanism to determine if Member States are fulfilling their commitments. Only PESCO members are voting, decisions are taken by unanimity (except decisions regarding the suspension of membership and entry of new members which are taken by qualified majority).
Projects level
Each project will be managed by those member states that contribute to it, in line with general rules for project management to be developed at overarching level.

List of projects

The first PESCO projects started with a list of 50 ideas and was whittled down to provide a short list of small-scale projects. Major armament projects are intended in the future (EU forces use 178 different weapon systems compared to 30 in the US), but initially PESCO is to be focused on smaller operations to lay groundwork. [7]

PESCO projects as of February, 2021 and participating countries by category: [55] [56]

Air - Systems

Project NameAbbrCoordinatorProject membersProject observer
European MALE RPAS EURODRONE Flag of Germany.svg Germany
European attack helicopter TIGER MARK III Flag of France.svg  France
Counter Unmanned Aerial System C-UASFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Airborne Electronic Attack AEAFlag of Spain.svg  Spain
Integrated Multi-layer Air and Missile Defense SystemIMLAMDFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Future Short-Range air-to-air MissileFSRMFlag of Germany.svg  Germany
Next Generation Medium HelicopterNGMHFlag of France.svg  France

Cyber - C4ISR

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject membersProject observer
European Secure Software-defined Radio ESSORFlag of France.svg  France
Cyber Threats and Incident Response Information Sharing PlatformCTIRISPFlag of Greece.svg  Greece
Cyber Rapid Response TeamsCRRTFlag of Lithuania.svg  Lithuania
The Strategic Command and Control System for CSDP MissionsESC2Flag of Spain.svg  Spain
European High Atmosphere Airship Platform - ISR CapabilityEHAAPFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
SOCC for Small Joint Operations with Special Operations Forces Tactical Command and

Control capabilities

SOCC FOR SJOFlag of Greece.svg  Greece
Electronic Warfare Capability/Interoperability Programmer for future ISRJISRFlag of the Czech Republic.svg  Czech Republic
Cyber and Information Domain Coordination CenterCIDCCFlag of Germany.svg  Germany

Enabling - Joint

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject membersProject observer
European Medical Command EMCFlag of Germany.svg  Germany
Network of Logistic Hubs in Europe and support to operationsNetLogHubsFlag of Germany.svg  Germany
Military Mobility MMFlag of the Netherlands.svg  Netherlands
Energy Operation FunctionEOFFlag of France.svg  France
Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear Surveillance as a ServiceCBRN SaaSFlag of Austria.svg  Austria
Geo-Meteorological and Oceanographic Support Coordination ElementGEOMETOC

GMSCE

Flag of Germany.svg  Germany
Timely Warning and Interception with Space-based Theater SurveillanceTWISTERFlag of France.svg  France
Materials and Components for Technological EU CompetitivenessMAC-EUFlag of France.svg  France
EU Collaborative Warfare CapabilitiesECOWARFlag of France.svg  France
European Global RPAS Insertion Architecture SystemGLORIAFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Robust Communication Infrastructure and NetworksROCOMINFlag of Sweden.svg  Sweden
Arctic Command & Control Effector And Sensor SystemACCESSFlag of Finland.svg  Finland
Counter Battery SensorsCOBASFlag of France.svg  France
Role 2FFlag of Spain.svg  Spain

Land - Formations - Systems

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject membersProject observer
Deployable Military Disaster Relief Capability PackageDM-DRCPFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Armoured Infantry Fighting Vehicle / Amphibious Assault Vehicle / Light Armoured VehicleAIFV/AAV/LAVFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Crisis Response Operation Core EUFOR CROCFlag of Germany.svg  Germany
Integrated Unmanned Ground System UGSFlag of Estonia.svg  Estonia
Integrated Unmanned Ground Systems 2IUGS2Flag of Estonia.svg  Estonia
EU Beyond Line of Sight Land Battlefield Missile SystemsEU BLOSFlag of France.svg  France
European Defense Airlift Training AcademyEDA-TAFlag of France.svg  France

Maritime

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject memberProject observer
Maritime Semi-Autonomous Systems for Mine CountermeasuresMAS MCMFlag of Belgium (civil).svg  Belgium
Harbour & Maritime Surveillance and ProtectionHARMSPROFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Upgrade of Maritime SurveillanceUMSFlag of Greece.svg  Greece
Deployable Modular Underwater Intervention Capability PackageDIVEPACKFlag of Bulgaria.svg  Bulgaria
Maritime Unmanned Anti-Submarine SystemMUSASFlag of Portugal.svg  Portugal
European Patrol Corvette EPCFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Anti-torpedo torpedoATTFlag of Germany.svg  Germany
Critical Seabed Infrastructure ProtectionCSIPFlag of Italy.svg  Italy

Space

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject membersProject observer
EU Radio Navigation SolutionEURASFlag of France.svg  France
European Military Space Surveillance Awareness NetworkEU-SSA-NFlag of Italy.svg  Italy

Training - Facilities

Project nameAbbr.CoordinatorProject membersProject observer
European Training Certification Centre for European ArmiesETCCEAFlag of Italy.svg  Italy
Helicopter Hot and High TrainingH3 TRAININGFlag of Greece.svg  Greece
Joint EU Intelligence School JEISFlag of Greece.svg  Greece
Integrated European Joint Training and Simulation CentreEUROSIMFlag of Hungary.svg  Hungary
EU Cyber Academia and Innovation HubEU CAIHFlag of Portugal.svg  Portugal
Special Operations Forces Medical Training CentreSMTCFlag of Poland.svg  Poland
CBRN Defence Training RangeCBRNDTRFlag of Romania.svg  Romania
EU Network of Diving CentresEUNDCFlag of Romania.svg  Romania

Potential

Potential future PESCO projects include the following existing intergovernmental cooperations between member states' militaries, presently outside the CSDP framework:[ citation needed ]

Forces and command centres:

Bodies fostering integration:

See also

Other initiatives of the Common Security and Defence Policy established after the introduction of the European Union Global Strategy:

Other 'European' defence organisations that are currently not part of the CSDP but could potentially become PESCO projects:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western European Union</span> 1954–2011 international organisation and military alliance

The Western European Union was the international organisation and military alliance that succeeded the Western Union (WU) after the 1954 amendment of the 1948 Treaty of Brussels. The WEU implemented the Modified Brussels Treaty. During the Cold War, the Western Bloc included the WEU member-states, plus the United States and Canada, as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eurocorps</span> Military corps of the European Union

Eurocorps, located in the French city of Strasbourg (Bas-Rhin), is a multinational corps headquarters. Founded by France and Germany in 1992, it is today composed of personnel from six framework nations and five associated nations. The framework nations place the Eurocorps at the service of the European Union (EU) and NATO, which certified it in 2002 as one of its nine High Readiness Land Headquarters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common Security and Defence Policy</span> Defence policy of the European Union

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EU Battlegroup</span> Military unit

An EU Battlegroup is a military unit adhering to the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union (EU). Often based on contributions from a coalition of member states, each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force reinforced with combat support elements. Two of the battlegroups were to be capable for operational deployment at any one time. The civil power that oversees these battlegroups is the Council of the European Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Defence Agency</span> Agency of the European Union

The European Defence Agency (EDA) is an agency of the European Union (EU) that promotes and facilitates integration between member states within the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The EDA is headed by the EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, European Commission’s Vice President (HR/VP), and reports to the Council. The EDA was established on 12 July 2004 and is based in Brussels, Belgium, along with a number of other CSDP bodies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enhanced cooperation</span> European Union procedure

In the European Union (EU), enhanced cooperation is a procedure where a minimum of nine EU member states are allowed to establish advanced integration or cooperation in an area within EU structures but without the other members being involved. As of October 2017, this procedure is being used in the fields of the Schengen acquis, divorce law, patents, property regimes of international couples, and European Public Prosecutor and is approved for the field of a financial transaction tax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Maritime Force</span> Non-standing rapid reaction force capable of naval, air and amphibious operations

The European Maritime Force is a non-standing, military force with the current participation of France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. The force may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ireland–NATO relations</span> Bilateral relations

Ireland and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) have had a formal relationship since 1999, when Ireland joined as a member of the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and signed up to NATO's Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). To date, Ireland has not sought to become a member of NATO due to its traditional policy of military neutrality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military Mobility</span>

Military Mobility is one of the initial projects launched under the European Union's (EU) Permanent Structured Cooperation in Defence (PESCO) facility. It is commonly termed a "Military Schengen" as it is inspired by the EU's Schengen Area, but designated to aid the free movement of military units and assets throughout Europe via removal of bureaucratic barriers and improvement of infrastructure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crisis Response Operation Core</span> Military unit

The Crisis Response Operation Core (CROC) is a flagship European Union defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities. CROC is intended to be a 60,000 head military force composed of three divisions of four battalions each. The lead nations in 2017 were France, Germany, Italy and Spain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Defence Fund</span>

The European Defence Fund (EDF) is a component of the European Union's (EU) Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) which aims to coordinate and increase national investment in defence research and improve interoperability between national armed forces. It was proposed in 2016 by Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker and established in 2017. The fund has two stands; Research and Development & Acquisition. In July 2018, the European Commission announced that the EDF budget for 2021-2027 would be €13 billion. This sum was later revised by the European Commission as part of the new EU budget proposed on May 27, 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, according to which the EDF will be allocated €8 billion over this budget period.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coordinated Annual Review on Defence</span>

The Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD) is a process of monitoring the defence plans of European Union (EU) member states to help coordinate spending and identify possible collaborative projects. It has operated on a test basis since 2017 under the European Defence Agency (EDA), in cooperation with the European External Action Service (EEAS). After a first trial run in 2017/2018, the first full implementation of CARD was launched in autumn 2019 and completed in November 2020 with a final report submitted to Defence Ministers meeting in EDA’s Steering Board.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Military Planning and Conduct Capability</span> EU permanent strategic-level operational headquarters for military operations

The Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC) is a permanent operational headquarters (OHQ) at the military strategic level for military operations of up to 2,500 troops deployed as part of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union (EU) by the end of 2020. Since its inception in 2017, the MPCC has commanded three non-executive training missions in Somalia, Mali and the Central African Republic, and will organise the training of Ukrainian forces on EU soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Common Security and Defence Policy</span> Aspect in of history

This article outlines the history of the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union (EU), a part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Defence forces of the European Union</span>

This article outlines the defence forces of the European Union (EU), which implement the EU's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) in CSDP missions. There are two categories of EU multinational forces: ones that have been established intergovernmentally and made available to the CSDP through article 42.3 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), such as the Eurocorps; and the EU Battlegroups, established at the EU level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Intervention Initiative</span> Joint military project between 13 European countries

The European Intervention Initiative (EI2) is a joint military project between 13 European countries outside of existing structures, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union's (EU) defence arm. EI2 is planned to operate a "light" permanent secretariat based on the network of military liaison officers with the French defence ministry.

The Joint European Union Intelligence School (JEIS) is a project of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) that was announced in November 2018. The project will be led by Cyprus and Greece. The school will provide education and training in intelligence disciplines, among other things, to EU member states intelligence personnel, and develop new hardware, including drones and electronic warfare technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy</span> European Union military structure

This article outlines the present structure of the European Union's Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), a part of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) based on articles 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Article 42.2 of TEU states that the CSDP includes the 'progressive framing' of a common Union defence policy, and will lead to a common defence, when the European Council of national heads of state or government, acting unanimously, so decides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Union–NATO relations</span> Bilateral relations

The European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) are two main treaty-based Western organisations for cooperation between member states, both headquartered in Brussels, Belgium. Their natures are different and they operate in different spheres: NATO is a purely intergovernmental organisation functioning as a military alliance, which serves to implement article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty on collective territorial defence. The EU on the other hand is a partly supranational and partly intergovernmental sui generis entity akin to a confederation that entails wider economic and political integration. Unlike NATO, the EU pursues a foreign policy in its own right—based on consensus, and member states have equipped it with tools in the field of defence and crisis management; the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2022 Danish European Union opt-out referendum</span> Referendum on abolition of the Danish opt-out of the defence section of the Treaty of Maastricht

A referendum on the abolition of the defence opt-out, one of the country's opt-outs from the European Union, was held in Denmark on 1 June 2022. The referendum was announced on 6 March 2022 following a broad multi-party defence agreement reached during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The referendum resulted in the "Yes" side winning with approximately two-thirds of the vote.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Permanent Structured Cooperation on defence could be launched by end 2017, European External Action Service, 8 September 2017
  2. ↑ "Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) first collaborative PESCO projects - Overview" (PDF).
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "Article 42(6), Article 43(1), Article 46, Protocol 10 of the amended Treaty on European Union" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 15 April 2008.
  4. 1 2 3 Time for the Sleeping Beauty to wake, ECFR 15/NOV/17
  5. 1 2 Angela Merkel: EU cannot completely rely on US and Britain any more, theguardian 28 May 2017
  6. ↑ Can France and Germany Make PESCO Work as a Process Toward EU Defense?, German Marshall Fund 6 October 2017
  7. 1 2 European military cooperation: How to defend Europe?, Euractiv 29 November 2017
  8. ↑ "Romania to join EU's defence initiative PESCO". seenews.com.
  9. ↑ "EU defence ministers: defence cooperation needs to be brought to a new level". 7 September 2017. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
  10. ↑ "Czech government to join PESCO defence project - Prague Monitor". www.praguemonitor.com. Archived from the original on 2017-10-12. Retrieved 2017-12-17.
  11. ↑ "Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) - Council Decision - preparation for the adoption". Council of the European Union. 2017-12-08. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
  12. ↑ "COUNCIL DECISION establishing Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) and determining the list of Participating Member States" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 2017-12-08. Retrieved 2018-02-18.
  13. ↑ Defence cooperation: Council establishes Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO), with 25 member states participating, Council of the European Union 11 December 2017
  14. ↑ "PESCO: EU paves way to defense union". Deutsche Welle . 2017-11-13. Archived from the original on 2017-11-18. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
  15. ↑ Erlanger, Steven (2017-11-13). "E.U. Moves Closer to a Joint Military Force". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-11-13. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  16. ↑ "Malta among three countries opting out of EU's new defence agreement". Times of Malta. 2017-12-11. Archived from the original on 2017-12-12. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
  17. ↑ "Twenty-five EU states sign PESCO defense pact". Deutsche Welle. 2017-12-11. Archived from the original on 2017-12-12. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
  18. 1 2 "Malta to 'wait and see' before deciding on PESCO defence pact, Muscat says". MaltaToday.com.mt.
  19. ↑ "V 66 Om et fælles EU-forsvar". Folketing. 2022-04-08. Retrieved 2022-06-20.
  20. ↑ "Denmark votes overwhelmingly to join EU's common defence policy". The Guardian. 1 June 2022.
  21. ↑ "List of Union acts adopted pursuant to Article 26(1), Article 42 and Articles 43 to 46 of the Treaty on European Union, to be applied to Denmark as from 1 July 2022 2022/C 263/05". Official Journal of the European Union . C (262): 11. 2022-07-08. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  22. ↑ "Danes vote yes to abolish EU defence opt-out – here are the next steps". Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Denmark). 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
  23. ↑ "Denmark votes to join European Defence Agency". The Copenhagen Post. 2023-03-23. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  24. ↑ Szumski, Charles (2023-03-24). "Danish parliament votes to join European Defence Agency". Euractiv . Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  25. ↑ Wenande, Christian (23 May 2023). "Defence milestone: Denmark officially joins PESCO" . Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  26. ↑ "EU defence cooperation: Council welcomes Denmark into PESCO and launches the 5th wave of new PESCO projects". Council of the EU. 2023-05-23. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
  27. ↑ "Council Decision (CFSP) 2023/1015 of 23 May 2023 confirming the participation of Denmark in PESCO, and amending Decision (CFSP) 2017/2315 establishing permanent structured cooperation (PESCO) and determining the list of participating Member States". Official Journal of the European Union . L (136): 73. 2023-05-24.
  28. ↑ EU states poised to agree joint defence pact, Financial Times 7 November 2017
  29. ↑ Foreign and security policy, Mission of Norway to the EU
  30. ↑ Schiltz, Christoph B. (2021-02-28). ""Historische Entwicklung": USA wollen sich aktiv an EU-Verteidigungspolitik beteiligen". DIE WELT. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  31. ↑ Brzozowski, Alexandra (May 17, 2021). "Turkey's participation request in EU military project apprehended as 'Trojan horse'". www.euractiv.com.
  32. ↑ Noyan, Oliver (July 27, 2021). "Austria opposes Turkey's bid to join EU military project". www.euractiv.com.
  33. ↑ "What Turkey won with its NATO leverage". June 29, 2022.
  34. ↑ "Trilateral Memorandum" (PDF).
  35. ↑ "UK-Europe relations finally head in the right direction". Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank. January 24, 2023.
  36. ↑ Turner, Christian (October 14, 2022). "The European Political Community is born – now what?". UK in a changing Europe.
  37. ↑ "The European Political Community in a Global Context". ICDS. January 10, 2023.
  38. ↑ "PESCO: the UK will be invited to participate in Military Mobility project". www.consilium.europa.eu.
  39. ↑ "Dáil votes to join European defence organisation". RTÉ.ie . 7 December 2017.
  40. ↑ "EU defence co-operation is no threat to Irish neutrality". The Irish Times.
  41. ↑ Ukraine war sees Swiss challenge their age-old neutrality, BBC News, 7 May 2022
  42. ↑ EU to sign joint defence pact in show of post-Brexit unity, Euractiv 9 November 2017
  43. ↑ NATO Secretary General welcomes PESCO, stresses need for complementarity, NATO 14 November 2017
  44. ↑ Zyla, Benjamin (2020). The End of European Security Institutions? The EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy and NATO After Brexit. Berlin, Germany: Springer Nature. pp. 98ff. ISBN   9783030421601.
  45. 1 2 Naumescu, Valentin (2019). The New European Union and Its Global Strategy: From Brexit to PESCO. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 14ff. ISBN   978-1-5275-4182-5. OCLC   1132792079.
  46. ↑ Leuprecht, Christian; Hamilton, Rhianna (2019). "New opportunities in common security and defence policy: Joining PESCO". Australian and New Zealand Journal of European Studies. 11 (3). doi: 10.30722/anzjes.vol11.iss3.15109 . hdl: 1974/29833 . ISSN   1836-1803.
  47. ↑ Dunn, Jonathan (2020). "The European Union's Permanent Structured Cooperation: Implications for Transatlantic Security". Strategic Forum, Institute for National Strategic Studies.
  48. ↑ "Importer/Exporter TIV Tables". sipri.org. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. 2020. Retrieved 2021-01-01.
  49. ↑ Fiott, Daniel (2019). The Poison Pill: European Defence on US Terms?. Brussels, Belgium: European Union Institute for Security Studies. ISBN   978-92-9198-806-8.
  50. ↑ "Braucht Europa eine Armee?". YouTube. arte. 2020-05-05. Retrieved 2021-01-01.
  51. ↑ "U.S. ready to help EU speed up troop movement to meet Russia challenge". Berlin/Washington: Reuters. 2 March 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  52. ↑ Rieker, Pernille (2021). "Differentiated Defence Integration Under French Leadership". European Foreign Affairs Review. 26: 111–126. doi:10.54648/EERR2021029. S2CID   248273479.
  53. ↑ Kempin, Ronja; Stiftung Wissenschaft Und Politik (2021). "Frankreichs Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik unter Präsident Macron: Konsequenzen für die deutsch-französische Zusammenarbeit". SWP-Studie (in German). doi:10.18449/2021S04. Frankreich fürchtete insbesondere, dass die USA über eine Beteiligung an PESCO- und EVF-Vorhaben die Entwicklung der GSVP beeinflussen würden.
  54. ↑ "Permanent Structured Cooperation: An Institutional Pathway for European Defence « CSS Blog Network". isnblog.ethz.ch.
  55. ↑ "Council-Decision-PESCO-projects-list" (PDF).
  56. ↑ "pesco-projects" (PDF).
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.