Phallus ravenelii

Last updated

Ravenel's stinkhorn
Phallus.ravenelii.001..jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Phallus
Species:
P. ravenelii
Binomial name
Phallus ravenelii
Berk. & M.A.Curtis (1873)
Synonyms [1]

Aedycia ravenelii(Berk. & M.A.Curtis) Kuntze (1898)

Contents

Phallus ravenelii
Information icon.svg
Gleba icon.png Glebal hymenium
Conical cap icon.svg Cap is conical
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Edible.pngMycomorphbox Caution.pngEdibility is edible but not recommended

Phallus ravenelii, commonly known as Ravenel's stinkhorn, [2] is a fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is found in eastern North America. Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature. It is saprobic, and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in wood debris, from forests to mulched gardens or sawdust piles in urban areas. It appears from August to October[ citation needed ]. The fruit body emerges from a pink or lavender-colored egg to form a tall, cylindrical, hollow and spongy white stalk with a bell-shaped cap[ citation needed ]. The remains of the egg persist as a white to pink or lilac volva at the base of the stalk. The cap is covered in a foul-smelling olive-green spore slime, which attracts insects that help to spread the spores [ citation needed ]. Sometimes, the cap has a "veil" attached—a thin membrane that hangs underneath. The lack of a roughly ridged and pitted cap differentiates it from the closely related Phallus impudicus . The fungus is named after Henry William Ravenel, a botanist who first discovered it in 1846, though it remained undescribed until 1873[ citation needed ]. It is considered to be an edible mushroom while in its egg form[ citation needed ].

Taxonomy

"Volva ovate, but slightly split above; stem independent of the pileus, 1½ inch high; pileus 1½ inch high, truncate at the apex, even."

Berkeley's original description [3]

The species was first described officially in the scientific literature by English mycologist Miles Berkeley in an 1873 publication. [3] Berkeley obtained the specimens from Moses Ashley Curtis, which had in turn been sent to him by Ravenel from collections he made at the Santee River in South Carolina in 1846. [4] Although the specimen had been sent with Ravenel's extensive collection notes, Berkeley's description was brief, and he neglected to mention the veil. American Curtis Gates Lloyd later disparaged the quality of Berkeley's description, and noted "he was so busy that he could not take the time to consider the details, and his "description" tells nothing of the leading characters of the species." [5] Charles Horton Peck, upon encountering the fungus in North America, could not identify it using Berkeley's description, and instead had to contact Ravenel to obtain his original collection notes before he could confirm its identity. Peck later wrote a full description of the species. [4] In 1898, [6] Edward Angus Burt placed the taxon in the genus Dictyophora, based on the presence of the veil. [7] Otto Kuntze transferred the taxon to the genus Aedycia (now equivalent with Mutinus ), [8] resulting in the synonym Aedycia ravenelii. [1] The mushroom is commonly known as the eastern stinkhorn [9] or Ravenel's stinkhorn. [10]

Description

Phallus ravenelii 24508.jpg
A bisected egg
Phallusravenelii.jpg
Close-up of cap and stalk surfaces
Phallus ravenelii 59476.jpg
The cap has a white open circlet at the top.

The mushroom begins its development in the form of pink-, lilac-, or purple-tinged "eggs" that resemble a puffball. The egg expands rapidly to form a phallus-shaped structure with a yellowish-white stalk and thimble-like cap. The cap ranges from 1.5 to 4 cm (0.6 to 1.6 in) in width and 3 to 4.5 cm (1.2 to 1.8 in) in height; [10] the entire fruit body can reach heights of 20 cm (7.9 in). [11] The cap texture is finely granular and it is attached to a white open circlet at the top where it meets the stalk. [11] [12] In some specimens, this opening is relatively large with a broad margin, and gives the mushroom a truncated appearance. Microscopically, the cap surfaces comprises minute cells and cavities, with a spongy structure similar to that of the stem, but with smaller perforations than the stem. [4] The lower margin of the cap is free from attachment to the stalk, and there is sometimes a membranous veil suspended like a collar around the stem under the cap; the veil can be of varying lengths. [13] This veil can be seen in dissected eggs where it is present as a distinct, thin membranous tissue between the stalk and the cap before expansion. In this form, the veil is continuous from its attachment with the "primordial tissue" [nb 1] at the base of the stalk and volva below to the tip of the stem at the point where it joins the cap. The veil produced in P. ravenelli is distinct from the flaring, net-like indusium produced by Phallus species like P. indusiatus . [14] Gleba covers the head and is olive-green to dark brown in color, slimy in texture, and foul smelling. The spores measure 3 to 4.5  µm by 1 to 2 µm, are colorless, elliptical in shape, and smooth in texture. [11] [12] They are thin-walled and covered with a thin, hyaline (transparent), sticky coating. [15]

Sclerotia and rhizomorphs Phallus ravenelii 146352.jpg
Sclerotia and rhizomorphs

The stalk is hollow and measures 10 to 15 cm (3.9 to 5.9 in) tall and 1.5 to 3 cm (0.6 to 1.2 in) thick. It can range in color from slightly yellowish to white. At the stalk's base there is usually a white to pink volva (a sac-like cup). When immature, the fruit body is encapsulated within the volva present as a peridium (skin-like tissue layer), which ruptures as the mushroom emerges. The volva attaches to the substrate with whitish or pinkish rhizomorphs (thick, cord-like strands of mycelia). [11] [12] Rhizomorphs and mycelia that are exposed to air eventually turn whitish in color; those freshly exposed from their substrate usually quickly turn bluish purple. [16] The fungus produces watery and fleshy sclerotia that range in thickness from 1 to 10 mm with a length of up to 30 mm. The sclerotia are irregularly convoluted and lobed, and become hard and horny upon drying. [17] Sclerotia have a color reaction similar to that noted for rhizomorphs, and, after long exposure to air, will gradually turn a uniform dark reddish brown. [16] Phallus ravenelli is considered edible if in the egg form, and has a "mild" taste. [15] The foul odor of mature mushrooms would dissuade most from collecting for the table. [18]

Similar species

Lookalikes
Cogumelo.jpg
P. impudicus
Phallus hadriani.jpg
P. hadriani
Itajahya galericulata 13805.jpg
Itajahya galericulata

Phallus ravenelli is often confused with P. impudicus and P. hadriani . [19] P. impudicus has a highly reticulate (a net-like pattern of grooves and ridges) cap under the gleba. P. hadriani also has a pitted cap, and occurs less frequently than P. ravenelii. The widespread species Itajahya galericulata has a roughly spherical cap of several overlapping spongy tissue layers with gleba sandwiched in-between. [20] Phallus rugulosus is tall, thin, pale orange, and tapers towards the smooth cap. The cap is blackish olive in color, while the volva is oval and white. It is found in the eastern and southern United States and China. [15] P. granulosodenticulatus is a rare Brazilian species with a superficial resemblance to P. ravenelii. Apart from its distribution, it is distinguished from P. ravenelii by its smaller fruit bodies up to 9 cm (3.5 in) tall, a cogged cap margin, and somewhat larger spores that measure 3.8–5 by 2–3 µm. [21]

Distribution and habitat

Ravenel's stinkhorn is widespread in eastern North America, from Quebec in the north, south to Florida and west to Iowa and Ohio. West of the Mississippi, the common stinkhorn ( Phallus impudicus ) becomes more dominant. [12] In the early 1900s, Lloyd called it the most common phalloid in the United States. [22] The fungus is also found in Costa Rica. [23]

As a saprobic mushroom, or decomposer of organic material, Ravenel's stinkhorn can be found in almost any habitat that includes decaying wood. They are most often found growing in groups, though occasionally singly, on wood chips, rotten tree stumps or sawdust. They are common in urban flowerbeds, parks and lawns, as well as in meadows, cultivated areas and woods. [11] [12] The foul odor of the gleba attracts insects that walk and feed on the spore-bearing surface, and later disseminate the sticky spores to other locales. [15]

Notes

  1. ↑ Primordial tissue is homogenous, compact tissue present in the young (egg-form) fruit body made of densely interwoven hyphae rich in protoplasm, that later grows and differentiates to form parts of the mature fruit body [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phallaceae</span> Family of fungi

Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden, as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.

The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia (basidiomycetes) or paraphyses (ascomycetes). Cystidia are often important for microscopic identification. The subhymenium consists of the supportive hyphae from which the cells of the hymenium grow, beneath which is the hymenophoral trama, the hyphae that make up the mass of the hymenophore.

<i>Phallus indusiatus</i> Widespread species of stinkhorn fungus

Phallus indusiatus, commonly called the bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn, bridal veil, or veiled lady, is a fungus in the family Phallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and is found in southern Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where it grows in woodlands and gardens in rich soil and well-rotted woody material. The fruit body of the fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on a stalk and a delicate lacy "skirt", or indusium, that hangs from beneath the cap and reaches nearly to the ground. First described scientifically in 1798 by French botanist Étienne Pierre Ventenat, the species has often been referred to a separate genus Dictyophora along with other Phallus species featuring an indusium. P. indusiatus can be distinguished from other similar species by differences in distribution, size, color, and indusium length.

<i>Phallus</i> (fungus) Genus of fungi

The genus Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, is a group of basidiomycetes which produce a phallic, often foul-scented mushroom, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales. The best known species is the common stinkhorn.

<i>Phallus impudicus</i> Fungus known as the common stinkhorn

Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and North America, where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens. It appears from summer to late autumn. The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy, dark olive colored conical head. Known as the gleba, this material contains the spores, and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor—described as resembling carrion. Despite its foul smell, it is not usually poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France, Germany and the Czech Republic.

<i>Phallus duplicatus</i> Netted stinkhorn or wood witch fungus

Phallus duplicatus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. The bell-shaped to oval cap is green-brown, the cylindrical stalk is white. When mature the cap becomes sticky with a slimy green coating that attracts flies that disperse its spores, and it has a distinct, "netted" universal veil. The fungus is edible when still in the "egg" stage, before the fruit body has expanded. It grows often in public lawns, and can also be found in meadows.

<i>Phallus hadriani</i> Dune stinkhorn or sand stinkhorn fungus

Phallus hadriani, commonly known as the dune stinkhorn or the sand stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is a widely distributed species, and is native to Asia, Europe, and North America. In Australia, it is probably an introduced species. The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to 20 cm (7.9 in) tall by 4 cm (1.6 in) thick, and is spongy, fragile, and hollow. At the top of the stem is a ridged and pitted, thimble-like cap over which is spread olive-colored spore slime (gleba). Shortly after emerging, the gleba liquefies and releases a fetid odor that attracts insects, which help disperse the spores. Said to be edible in its immature egg-like stage, it typically grows in public lawns, yards and gardens, usually in sandy soils. Phallus hadriani may be distinguished from the similar P. impudicus by the presence of a pink or violet-colored volva at the base of the stem, and by differences in odor.

<i>Phallus rubicundus</i> Tropical stinkhorn fungus

Phallus rubicundus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. First described in 1811, it has a wide distribution in tropical regions. It has the typical stinkhorn structure consisting of a spongy stalk up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall arising from a gelatinous "egg" up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter. Atop the stalk is a pitted, conical cap that has a foul-smelling, gelatinous, green spore mass spread over it.

<i>Mutinus caninus</i> Species of fungus

Mutinus caninus, commonly known as the dog stinkhorn, is a small thin, phallus-shaped woodland fungus, with a dark tip. It is often found growing in small groups on wood debris, or in leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Europe, Asia, and eastern North America. It is not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature 'eggs' being consumed.

<i>Clathrus ruber</i> Species of fungus in the stinkhorn family

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The fungus is saprobic, feeding off decaying woody plant material, and is often found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil, grassy places, or on woodchip garden mulches. Although considered primarily a European species, C. ruber has been introduced to other areas, and now has a wide distribution that includes all continents except Antarctica. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.

<i>Lysurus mokusin</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even close in on each other to form a spire. The gleba—an olive-green slimy spore mass—is carried on the outer surface of the arms. The fruit body, which has an odor comparable to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh", or "sewage" when mature, is edible in its immature "egg" stage. The fungus is native to Asia, and is also found in Australia, Europe and North America, where it is probably an introduced species. It has been used medicinally in China as an ulcer remedy.

<i>Lysurus periphragmoides</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch. The fruit body, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore mass, the gleba, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the family Phallaceae, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible.

<i>Pseudocolus fusiformis</i> Species of fungus

Pseudocolus fusiformis is a stinkhorn mushroom in the Phallaceae, a family well known for a remarkable range of fruit body types. It is the most widely distributed member of the genus Pseudocolus and has been found in the United States, Australia, Japan, Java, and the Philippines. It is commonly known as the stinky squid, because of its fetid odor, and its three or four upright "arms" which are connected at the top. The malodorous smell comes from the dark greenish slimy gleba covering the inside faces of the arms, and attracts insects that help to disperse the spores.

<i>Clathrus columnatus</i> Species of fungus

Clathrus columnatus, commonly known as the column stinkhorn, is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae. It has a widespread distribution, and has been found in Africa, Australasia, and the Americas. It may have been introduced to North America with exotic plants. Similar to other stinkhorn fungi, the fruiting body, known as the receptaculum, starts out as a subterranean "egg" form. As the fungus develops, the receptaculum expands and erupts out of the protective volva, ultimately developing into mature structures characterized by two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined at the apex. The fully grown receptaculum reaches heights of 8 cm (3.1 in) tall. The inside surfaces of the columns are covered with a fetid olive-brown spore-containing slime, which attracts flies and other insects that help disseminate the spores. Although once considered undesirable, the fungus is listed as edible. It is found commonly in mulch.

<i>Mutinus elegans</i> Species of stinkhorn fungus

Mutinus elegans, commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn, the dog stinkhorn, the headless stinkhorn, or the devil's dipstick, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. A saprobic species, it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Japan, Europe, and eastern North America. The fruit body begins its development in an "egg" form, resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground. As the fungus matures, a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip. The stalk is covered with a foul-smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length. Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores, assisting in their dispersal. Due to their repellent odor, mature specimens are not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature "eggs" being consumed. In the laboratory, Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans.

<i>Agaricus deserticola</i> Species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae endemic to southwestern and western North America

Agaricus deserticola, commonly known as the gasteroid agaricus, is a species of fungus in the family Agaricaceae. Found only in southwestern and western North America, A. deserticola is adapted for growth in dry or semi-arid habitats. The fruit bodies are secotioid, meaning the spores are not forcibly discharged, and the cap does not fully expand. Unlike other Agaricus species, A. deserticola does not develop true gills, but rather a convoluted and networked system of spore-producing tissue called a gleba. When the partial veil breaks or pulls away from the stem or the cap splits radially, the blackish-brown gleba is exposed, which allows the spores to be dispersed.

<i>Amanita ravenelii</i> Species of fungus

Amanita ravenelii, commonly known as the pinecone lepidella, is a species of fungus in the family Amanitaceae. The whitish fruit bodies are medium to large, with caps up to 17 centimetres wide, and stems up to 25 cm (10 in) long. The cap surface has large warts and the stem has a scaly, bulbous base. The mushrooms have a unique chlorine like odor.

<i>Phallus calongei</i> Stinkhorn fungus from Pakistan

Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba. It is distinguished from other similar Phallus species by a combination of features, including a pinkish, reticulated (network-like) cap, and a stipe that is tapered at both ends. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Staheliomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Staheliomyces is a fungal genus in the stinkhorn family. The genus was considered monotypic for over 100 years, containing the single neotropical species Staheliomyces cinctus, until a 2022 study revealed four additional, cryptic species. Members are colloquially known as the strangled stinkhorns. The genus is found in Central America and northern South America. The fruit body of the fungus is a hollow, whitish, cylindric stalk up to 16 cm (6.3 in) tall, with conspicuous pits and holes. Near the top of the stalk is a pinched-off zone covered with unpleasant-smelling slimy spore mass called gleba. The gleba attracts stingless bees that help disseminate the spores.

<i>Colus hirudinosus</i> Species of fungus

Colus hirudinosus is a species of stinkhorn fungus (Gasteromycete) found in Asia, Australia, northern Africa, and southern Europe. The fruit body has a short, thick stalk that divides into several spongy, wrinkled, stalk-like, orange to red columns that are united at the top, thus forming a lattice. The spores are found within the gleba—a dark, olive-brown slime that coats the inside of the columns. Spores are spread by insects that are attracted by the fetid smell of the gleba, eat the spores, and pass them on to germinate elsewhere.

References

  1. 1 2 "Phallus ravenelii Berk. & M.A. Curtis 1882". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  2. ↑ "Standardized Common Names for Wild Species in Canada". National General Status Working Group. 2020.
  3. 1 2 Berkeley MJ (1873). "Notices of North American fungi (cont.)". Grevillea. 2 (15): 33–35.
  4. 1 2 3 Peck CH (1882). "An imperfectly-described Phalloid". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 9 (10): 123–124. doi:10.2307/2476027. JSTOR   2476027.
  5. ↑ Gates CG (1907). "Concerning the Phalloids". Mycological Notes (26): 329.
  6. ↑ Kuntze O. (1898). Revisio generum plantarum. Vol. 3. p. 441.
  7. ↑ Burt ED (1896). "The Phalloidea of the United States. II. Systematic account". Botanical Gazette. 22 (5): 379–391. doi:10.1086/327425. JSTOR   2463999.
  8. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. p. 11. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  9. ↑ McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 348. ISBN   0-395-91090-0.
  10. 1 2 Bessette A, Bessette AR, Fischer DW (1997). Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 463. ISBN   978-0-8156-0388-7.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Kuo M. (November 2004). "Phallus ravenelii". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Lincoff, Gary H. (1981). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms. New York, New York: Random House. pp. 835–836. ISBN   0-394-51992-2.
  13. ↑ Gates CG (1907). "Concerning the Phalloids". Mycological Notes (28): 350.
  14. 1 2 Atkinson GF (1911). "The origin and taxonomic value of the "veil" in Dictyophora and Ithyphallus". Botanical Gazette. 51 (1): 10–17. doi:10.1086/330429. S2CID   85234582.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Miller HR, Miller OK (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: FalconGuides. p. 479. ISBN   978-0-7627-3109-1.
  16. 1 2 Banker HJ (1904). "Observations on Phallus ravenelii". Torreya. 4 (1): 5–8. JSTOR   40594221.
  17. ↑ Overholts LA (1925). "Mycological notes for 1923". Mycologia. 17 (3): 108–112. doi:10.2307/3753868. JSTOR   3753868.
  18. ↑ Metzler V, Metzler S (1992). Texas Mushrooms: A Field Guide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 304. ISBN   0-292-75125-7.
  19. ↑ Kuo M, Methven A (2010). 100 Cool Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 135. ISBN   978-0-472-03417-8.
  20. ↑ Dennis RWG (1953). "Some West Indian Gasteromycetes". Kew Bulletin. 8 (3): 307–328. doi:10.2307/4115517. JSTOR   4115517.
  21. ↑ Cortez VG, Baseia IG, da Silveira RMB (2011). "Two noteworthy Phallus from southern Brazil". Mycoscience. 52 (6): 436–438. doi:10.1007/s10267-011-0124-5. S2CID   84636468.
  22. ↑ Lloyd CG (1909). Synopsis of the Known Phalloids. Cincinnati, Ohio: J.U. & C.G. Lloyd. p. 14.
  23. ↑ Saenz JA, Nassar M, Morales MI (1973). "A key to the Phallales of Costa Rica". Revista de Biología Tropical. 21 (2): 425–427. PMID   4802251.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.