Phallus impudicus

Last updated
Common stinkhorn
Phallus impudicus LC0235.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Phallus
Species:
P. impudicus
Binomial name
Phallus impudicus
L. (1753)
Synonyms [1]

Phallus volvatus Batsch (1783)
Phallus foetidus Sowerby (1803)
Morellus impudicus(Pers.) Eaton (1818)
Ithyphallus impudicus(L.) E.Fischer (1888)

Contents

Phallus impudicus
Information icon.svg
Gleba icon.png Glebal hymenium
Conical cap icon.svg Cap is conical
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Saprotrophic fungus.svgEcology is saprotrophic
Mycomorphbox Caution.pngEdibility is not recommended

Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, [2] is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and North America, where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens. It appears from summer to late autumn. The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy, dark olive colored conical head. Known as the gleba, this material contains the spores, and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor—described as resembling carrion. Despite its foul smell, it is not usually poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France, Germany and the Czech Republic.

Taxonomy

The Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi described the fungus in 1560 with name fungus priapeus , and he depicted it in his series of water-coloured plates called teatro della natura ('nature's theater' 1560–1590). Another botanist, John Gerard called it the "pricke mushroom" or "fungus virilis penis effigie" in his General Historie of Plants of 1597, and John Parkinson referred to it as "Hollanders workingtoole" or "phallus hollandicus" in his Theatrum botanicum of 1640. [3] Linnaeus described it in his 1753 Species Plantarum , [4] and it still bears its original binomial name. Its specific epithet, impudicus, is derived from the Latin for "shameless" or "immodest". [5]

Description

Sometimes called the witch's egg, [6] the immature stinkhorn is whitish or pinkish, egg-shaped, and typically 4 to 6 cm (1.6 to 2.4 in) by 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in). [7]

An immature fruiting body ("egg") in longitudinal section Hexenei.jpg
An immature fruiting body ("egg") in longitudinal section

On the outside is a thick whitish volva, also known as the peridium, covering the olive-colored gelatinous gleba. It is the latter that contains the spores and later stinks and attracts the flies; within this layer is a green layer which will become the 'head' of the expanded fruit body; and inside this is a white structure called the receptaculum (the stalk when expanded), that is hard, but has an airy structure like a sponge. [8] The eggs become fully grown stinkhorns very rapidly, over a day or two. [6] The mature stinkhorn is 10 to 30 cm (3.9 to 11.8 in) tall and 4 to 5 cm (1.6 to 2.0 in) in diameter, [7] topped with a conical cap 2 to 4 cm (0.8 to 1.6 in) high that is covered with the greenish-brown slimy gleba. In older fungi the slime is eventually removed, exposing a bare yellowish pitted and ridged (reticulate) surface. This has a passing resemblance to the common morel ( Morchella esculenta ), for which it is sometimes mistaken. [9] The rate of growth of Phallus impudicus has been measured at 10–15 cm (4–6 in) per hour. The growing fruit body is able to exert up to 1.33  kPa of pressure — a force sufficient to push up through asphalt. [10] The spores have an elliptical to oblong shape, with dimensions of 3–5 to 1.5–2.5  µm. [9]

Similar species

In North America, Phallus impudicus can be distinguished from the very similar P. hadriani by the latter's purplish-tinted volva. [11] Other similar species include Clathrus ruber , Lysurus cruciatus , and Lysurus mokusin . [11]

Spore dispersal

The dispersal of spores is different from most "typical" mushrooms that spread their spores through the air. Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass on their tip which has a sharp, sickly-sweet odor of carrion to attract flies and other insects. Odorous chemicals in the gleba include methanethiol, hydrogen sulfide, [12] linalool, trans-ocimene, phenylacetaldehyde, dimethyl sulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide. [13] The latter compound has been found to be emitted from fungating cancerous wounds. [14] The mature fruiting bodies can be smelled from a considerable distance in the woods, and at close quarters most people find the cloying stink extremely repulsive. The flies land in the gleba and in doing so collect the spore mass on their legs and carry it to other locations. [15] An Austrian study demonstrated that blow-flies (species Calliphora vicina , Lucilia caesar , Lucilia ampullacea and Dryomyza anilis ) also feed on the slime, and soon after leaving the fruit body, they deposit liquid feces that contain a dense suspension of spores. [16] The study also showed that beetles (Oeceoptoma thoracica and Meligethes viridescens) are attracted to the fungus, but seem to have less of a role in spore dispersal as they tend to feed on the hyphal tissue of the fruiting body.

There is also a possible ecological association between the P. impudicus and badger (Meles meles) setts. [17] Fruiting bodies are commonly clustered in a zone 24 to 39 metres (79 to 128 ft) from the entrances; [18] the setts typically harbor a regularly-available supply of badger cadavers – the mortality rate of cubs is high, and death is more likely to occur within the sett. [19] The fruiting of large numbers of stinkhorns attracts a high population of blow-flies (Calliphora and Lucilla breed on carrion); [20] this ensures the rapid elimination of badger carcasses, removing a potential source of disease to the badger colony. The laxative effect of the gleba reduces the distance from the fruiting body to where the spores are deposited, ensuring the continued production of high densities of stinkhorns. [18]

Distribution and habitat

The common stinkhorn can be found throughout much of Europe and North America, and it has also been collected in Asia (including China, [21] Taiwan, [22] and India [23] ), Costa Rica, [24] Iceland, [25] Tanzania, [26] and southeast Australia. [27] In North America, it is most common west of the Mississippi River; Ravenel's stinkhorn ( Phallus ravenelii ) is more common to the east. [28] The fungus is associated with rotting wood, and as such it is most commonly encountered in deciduous woods where it fruits from summer to late autumn, though it may also be found in conifer woods or even grassy areas such as parks and gardens. [8] It may also form mycorrhizal associations with certain trees. [29]

Uses

Edibility

At the egg stage, pieces of the inner layer (the receptaculum) can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw. [30] They are crisp and crunchy with an attractive radishy taste. [31] The fungus is enjoyed and eaten in France and parts of Germany, where it may be sold fresh or pickled and used in sausages. [8] Similar species are consumed in China.

Medicinal properties

Venous thrombosis, the formation of a blood clot in a vein, is a common cause of death in breast cancer patients; patients with recurrent disease are typically maintained on anticoagulants for their lifetimes. A research study has suggested that extracts from P. impudicus can reduce the risk of this condition by reducing the incidence of platelet aggregation, and may have potential as a supportive preventive nutrition. [32] It was used in medieval times as a cure for gout and as a love potion. [8]

Folk uses

In Northern Montenegro, peasants rub Phallus impudicus on the necks of bulls before bull fighting contests in an attempt to make them stronger. They are also fed to young bulls as they are thought to be a potent aphrodisiac. [10]

In 1777, the reverend John Lightfoot wrote that the people of Thuringia called the unopened stinkhorns "ghost's or daemon's eggs" and dried and powdered them before mixing them in spirits as an aphrodisiac. [33]

In culture

Writing about life in Victorian Cambridge, Gwen Raverat (granddaughter of Charles Darwin) describes the 'sport' of stinkhorn hunting:

In our native woods there grows a kind of toadstool, called in the vernacular The Stinkhorn, though in Latin it bears a grosser name. The name is justified, for the fungus can be hunted by the scent alone; and this was Aunt Etty's great invention. Armed with a basket and a pointed stick, and wearing special hunting cloak and gloves, she would sniff her way round the wood, pausing here and there, her nostrils twitching, when she caught a whiff of her prey; then at last, with a deadly pounce, she would fall upon her victim, and poke his putrid carcass into her basket. At the end of the day's sport, the catch was brought back and burnt in the deepest secrecy on the drawing-room fire, with the door locked; because of the morals of the maids. [34]

In Thomas Mann's novel The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg), the psychologist Dr. Krokowski gives a lecture on the Phallus impudicus:

And Dr. Krokowski had spoken about one fungus, famous since classical antiquity for its form and the powers ascribed to it -- a morel, its Latin name ending in the adjective impudicus, its form reminiscent of love, and its odor, of death. For the stench given off by the impudicus was strikingly like that of a decaying corpse, the odor coming from greenish, viscous slime that carried its spores and dripped from the bell-shaped cap. And even today, among the uneducated, this morel was thought to be an aphrodisiac. [35]

In Danilo Kiš's novel Garden, Ashes the protagonist's father Eduard Schaum provokes the suspicions of the local residents and authorities through his mad wandering and sermonizing in the forests:

The story went round, and was preached from the pulpit, that his iron-tipped cane possessed magical powers, that trees withered like grass whenever he walked in the Count's forest, that his spit produced poisonous mushrooms --Ithyphalus impudicus--that grew under the guise of edible, cultivated varieties. [36]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phallaceae</span> Family of fungi

Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden, as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.

<i>Morchella esculenta</i> Species of fungus

Morchella esculenta is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae of the Ascomycota. It is one of the most readily recognized of all the edible mushrooms and highly sought after. Each fruit body begins as a tightly compressed, grayish sponge with lighter ridges, and expands to form a large yellowish sponge with large pits and ridges raised on a large white stem. The pitted yellow-brown caps measure 2–7 centimetres broad by 2–10 cm (1–4 in) tall, and are fused to the stem at its lower margin, forming a continuous hollow. The pits are rounded and irregularly arranged. The hollow stem is typically 2–9 cm long by 2–5 cm (1–2 in) thick, and white to yellow. The fungus fruits under hardwoods and conifers during a short period in the spring, depending on the weather, and is also associated with old orchards, woods and disturbed grounds.

<i>Phallus indusiatus</i> Widespread species of stinkhorn fungus

Phallus indusiatus, commonly called the bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn, bridal veil, or veiled lady, is a fungus in the family Phallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and is found in southern Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where it grows in woodlands and gardens in rich soil and well-rotted woody material. The fruit body of the fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on a stalk and a delicate lacy "skirt", or indusium, that hangs from beneath the cap and reaches nearly to the ground. First described scientifically in 1798 by French botanist Étienne Pierre Ventenat, the species has often been referred to a separate genus Dictyophora along with other Phallus species featuring an indusium. P. indusiatus can be distinguished from other similar species by differences in distribution, size, color, and indusium length.

<i>Phallus</i> (fungus) Genus of fungi

The genus Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, is a group of basidiomycetes which produce a phallic, often foul-scented mushroom, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales. The best known species is the common stinkhorn.

<i>Phallus ravenelii</i> Stinkhorn fungus from North America

Phallus ravenelii, commonly known as Ravenel's stinkhorn, is a fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is found in eastern North America. Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature. It is saprobic, and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in wood debris, from forests to mulched gardens or sawdust piles in urban areas. It appears from August to October. The fruit body emerges from a pink or lavender-colored egg to form a tall, cylindrical, hollow and spongy white stalk with a bell-shaped cap. The remains of the egg persist as a white to pink or lilac volva at the base of the stalk. The cap is covered in a foul-smelling olive-green spore slime, which attracts insects that help to spread the spores. Sometimes, the cap has a "veil" attached—a thin membrane that hangs underneath. The lack of a roughly ridged and pitted cap differentiates it from the closely related Phallus impudicus. The fungus is named after Henry William Ravenel, a botanist who first discovered it in 1846, though it remained undescribed until 1873. It is considered to be an edible mushroom while in its egg form.

<i>Phallus duplicatus</i> Netted stinkhorn or wood witch fungus

Phallus duplicatus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. The bell-shaped to oval cap is green-brown, the cylindrical stalk is white. When mature the cap becomes sticky with a slimy green coating that attracts flies that disperse its spores, and it has a distinct, "netted" universal veil. The fungus is edible when still in the "egg" stage, before the fruit body has expanded. It grows often in public lawns, and can also be found in meadows.

<i>Phallus hadriani</i> Dune stinkhorn or sand stinkhorn fungus

Phallus hadriani, commonly known as the dune stinkhorn or the sand stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is a widely distributed species, and is native to Asia, Europe, and North America. In Australia, it is probably an introduced species. The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to 20 cm (7.9 in) tall by 4 cm (1.6 in) thick, and is spongy, fragile, and hollow. At the top of the stem is a ridged and pitted, thimble-like cap over which is spread olive-colored spore slime (gleba). Shortly after emerging, the gleba liquefies and releases a fetid odor that attracts insects, which help disperse the spores. Said to be edible in its immature egg-like stage, it typically grows in public lawns, yards and gardens, usually in sandy soils. Phallus hadriani may be distinguished from the similar P. impudicus by the presence of a pink or violet-colored volva at the base of the stem, and by differences in odor.

<i>Phallus rubicundus</i> Tropical stinkhorn fungus

Phallus rubicundus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. First described in 1811, it has a wide distribution in tropical regions. It has the typical stinkhorn structure consisting of a spongy stalk up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall arising from a gelatinous "egg" up to 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter. Atop the stalk is a pitted, conical cap that has a foul-smelling, gelatinous, green spore mass spread over it.

<i>Mutinus caninus</i> Species of fungus

Mutinus caninus, commonly known as the dog stinkhorn, is a small thin, phallus-shaped woodland fungus, with a dark tip. It is often found growing in small groups on wood debris, or in leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Europe, Asia, and eastern North America. It is not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature 'eggs' being consumed.

<i>Clathrus ruber</i> Species of fungus in the stinkhorn family

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The fungus is saprobic, feeding off decaying woody plant material, and is often found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil, grassy places, or on woodchip garden mulches. Although considered primarily a European species, C. ruber has been introduced to other areas, and now has a wide distribution that includes all continents except Antarctica. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.

<i>Lysurus mokusin</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even close in on each other to form a spire. The gleba—an olive-green slimy spore mass—is carried on the outer surface of the arms. The fruit body, which has an odor comparable to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh", or "sewage" when mature, is edible in its immature "egg" stage. The fungus is native to Asia, and is also found in Australia, Europe and North America, where it is probably an introduced species. It has been used medicinally in China as an ulcer remedy.

<i>Lysurus periphragmoides</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch. The fruit body, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore mass, the gleba, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the family Phallaceae, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible.

<i>Pseudocolus fusiformis</i> Species of fungus

Pseudocolus fusiformis is a stinkhorn mushroom in the Phallaceae, a family well known for a remarkable range of fruit body types. It is the most widely distributed member of the genus Pseudocolus and has been found in the United States, Australia, Japan, Java, and the Philippines. It is commonly known as the stinky squid, because of its fetid odor, and its three or four upright "arms" which are connected at the top. The malodorous smell comes from the dark greenish slimy gleba covering the inside faces of the arms, and attracts insects that help to disperse the spores.

<i>Clathrus columnatus</i> Species of fungus

Clathrus columnatus, commonly known as the column stinkhorn, is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae. It has a widespread distribution, and has been found in Africa, Australasia, and the Americas. It may have been introduced to North America with exotic plants. Similar to other stinkhorn fungi, the fruiting body, known as the receptaculum, starts out as a subterranean "egg" form. As the fungus develops, the receptaculum expands and erupts out of the protective volva, ultimately developing into mature structures characterized by two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns, joined at the apex. The fully grown receptaculum reaches heights of 8 cm (3.1 in) tall. The inside surfaces of the columns are covered with a fetid olive-brown spore-containing slime, which attracts flies and other insects that help disseminate the spores. Although once considered undesirable, the fungus is listed as edible. It is found commonly in mulch.

<i>Mutinus elegans</i> Species of stinkhorn fungus

Mutinus elegans, commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn, the dog stinkhorn, the headless stinkhorn, or the devil's dipstick, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. A saprobic species, it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Japan, Europe, and eastern North America. The fruit body begins its development in an "egg" form, resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground. As the fungus matures, a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip. The stalk is covered with a foul-smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length. Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores, assisting in their dispersal. Due to their repellent odor, mature specimens are not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature "eggs" being consumed. In the laboratory, Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gasteroid fungi</span> Group of fungi

The gasteroid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota. Species were formerly placed in the obsolete class Gasteromycetes Fr., or the equally obsolete order Gasteromycetales Rea, because they produce spores inside their basidiocarps rather than on an outer surface. However, the class is polyphyletic, as such species—which include puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, and false truffles—are not closely related to each other. Because they are often studied as a group, it has been convenient to retain the informal (non-taxonomic) name of "gasteroid fungi".

<i>Phallus calongei</i> Stinkhorn fungus from Pakistan

Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba. It is distinguished from other similar Phallus species by a combination of features, including a pinkish, reticulated (network-like) cap, and a stipe that is tapered at both ends. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Staheliomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Staheliomyces is a fungal genus in the stinkhorn family. The genus was considered monotypic for over 100 years, containing the single neotropical species Staheliomyces cinctus, until a 2022 study revealed four additional, cryptic species. Members are colloquially known as the strangled stinkhorns. The genus is found in Central America and northern South America. The fruit body of the fungus is a hollow, whitish, cylindric stalk up to 16 cm (6.3 in) tall, with conspicuous pits and holes. Near the top of the stalk is a pinched-off zone covered with unpleasant-smelling slimy spore mass called gleba. The gleba attracts stingless bees that help disseminate the spores.

<i>Aseroe floriformis</i> Species of fungus

Aseroe floriformis is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family Phallaceae. Described as a new species in 2005, it is known only from northeast Brazil, where it grows on sandy soil. The fruit body has a raspberry-colored stipe, and, unlike other members of the genus Aseroe does not have radiating branches.

<i>Colus hirudinosus</i> Species of fungus

Colus hirudinosus is a species of stinkhorn fungus (Gasteromycete) found in Asia, Australia, northern Africa, and southern Europe. The fruit body has a short, thick stalk that divides into several spongy, wrinkled, stalk-like, orange to red columns that are united at the top, thus forming a lattice. The spores are found within the gleba—a dark, olive-brown slime that coats the inside of the columns. Spores are spread by insects that are attracted by the fetid smell of the gleba, eat the spores, and pass them on to germinate elsewhere.

References

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  25. ↑ Hallgrimsson, H.; Jensson, E.; Kristinsson, H. (1992). "Three new Gasteromycetes discovered in Iceland". Náttúrufræðingurinn (in Icelandic). 61 (3–4): 219–27.
  26. ↑ Calonge, F.D.; Harkonen, M.; Saarimaki, T.; Mwasumbi, L. (1997). "Tanzanian mushrooms and their uses. 5. Some notes on the Gasteromycetes". Karstenia. 37 (1): 3–10. doi: 10.29203/ka.1997.320 .
  27. ↑ Orchard, Anthony E. (1996). Fungi of Australia. Canberra, Australia: Australian Biological Resources Study. p. 141. ISBN   0-643-06907-0.
  28. ↑ Dickinson, Colin; Lucas, John (1979). The Encyclopedia of Mushrooms. London, UK: Orbis Publishing. ISBN   0-85613-056-7.
  29. ↑ Andersson, O. (1989). "The distribution and ecology of Phallus impudicus in the Nordic countries". Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. 83 (4): 219–41.
  30. ↑ Bon, Marcel (1987). The Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain and North-western Europe. London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton. p. 300. ISBN   0-340-39935-X. The entry for P. impudicus in this book explains the structure and mentions the edibility of the inner layer.
  31. ↑ Schaechter, Elio (1998). In the Company of Mushrooms: A Biologist's Tale. Cambridge, UK: Harvard University Press. pp. 172–73. ISBN   0-674-44555-4.
  32. ↑ Kuznecov, G.; Jegina, K.; Kuznecovs, S.; Kuznecovs, I. (2007). "Phallus impudicus in thromboprophylaxis in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and hormonal treatment". The Breast. 16 (S1): S56. doi:10.1016/s0960-9776(07)70211-4.
  33. ↑ Lightfoot, John. Flora Scotica: or, a systematic arrangement, in the Linnaean method, of the native plants of Scotland and the Hebrides. Vol. 2. London: B. White. pp. 1046–47.
  34. ↑ Raverat, Gwen (1952). Period Piece: A Cambridge childhood . London, UK: Faber. p.  136. ISBN   0-571-06742-5.
  35. ↑ Thomas Mann (1995). The Magic Mountain, translated by John E. Woods. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 358–359. ISBN   0-679-44183-2.
  36. ↑ Kiš, Danilo (2003). garden, ashes. 1st Dalkey Archive ed. p. 90. ISBN   1-56478-326-X.

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