Phallus (fungus)

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Stinkhorn
Phallus impudicus7 Stinkhorn.jpg
Common stinkhorn, Phallus impudicus
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Phallales
Family: Phallaceae
Genus: Phallus
Junius ex Linnaeus, 1758)
Type species
Phallus impudicus
L.
Species

see text

Synonyms

Dictyophora sect. ClautriaviaPat. 1896
Clautriavia(Pat.) Lloyd 1909
CryptophallusPeck 1897
DictyopeplosKuhl & Hasselt 1824
DictyophallusCorda 1842
DictyophoraDesv. 1809
HymenophallusNees 1817
JaczewskiaMattir. 1912
JuniaDumort. 1822
KirchbaumiaSchulzer 1866
Leiophallus(Fr.) Nees 1858
MorellusEaton 1818
OmphalophallusKalchbr. 1883
PhalloidastrumBattarra 1755
RetigerusRaddi 1829
SatyrusBosc 1811
SophroniaPers. 1827

Contents

The genus Phallus, commonly known as stinkhorns, is a group of basidiomycetes which produce a phallic, often foul-scented, mushroom, from which their name is derived. The genus has a widespread distribution and, according to a 2008 estimate, contains 18 species. They belong to the family Phallaceae in the order Phallales. The best known species (and type species) is the common stinkhorn ( Phallus impudicus ).

History and taxonomy

Hadrianus Junius, drawn by Theodor de Bry Hadrianus Junius 1511 - 1575.png
Hadrianus Junius, drawn by Theodor de Bry

The genus was first mentioned in the literature by the Dutch botanist Hadrianus Junius (1511–1575), who, in 1564 wrote a short book published in Delft on the Phallus in Hollandia, describing a mushroom in the form of a penis. He was not convinced that the organism was fungal in nature:

... I am not sure that our Phallus falls within the class of the fungi. I will not definitely decide to place it there because I do not want to make a judgment before others who know more about the matter. The lightness, however, and looseness of the substance and (a necessary condition for the existence of sponges) the sour sap of the moist earth where it was born, all bear witness that it belongs to the family of the fungi. However, the folds and creases, which do not exist here, but do among fungi, bear witness against it. There is also no trace of the cap that is normally connected to the stalk. Here the hat takes the place of the cap, and it can be removed without damage. Moreover, the site where it lives also argues against it, because this plant can only be found in dunes, and only there where old marram grass grows. Fungi, on the other hand, as stated clearly by authors, live in swampy, dirty, and rotting moist places, such as close to the roots of oak trees. [1]

In 1753, Carl Linnaeus used the genus name Phallus in his Species Plantarum ; [2] the named was later sanctioned by Christian Hendrik Persoon when he used it in his 1801 Synopsis Methodica Fungorum. [3]

Some authors have considered the presence of an indusium (a lacy "skirt" that hangs beneath the cap) to be an important taxonomic characteristic, and have placed taxa with indusia in a separate genus Dictyophora. [4] [5] More recent publications suggest that there are close morphological similarities in Phallus species with and without an indusium, so the trend has been to merge Dictyophora into Phallus; [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] the online taxonomic databases Index Fungorum and MycoBank consider Dictyophora synonymous with Phallus. [11] [12]

Diversity

According to the German mycologist Hanns Kreisel, who surveyed the genus in 1996, there are 33 species. Of these, 3 species are limited to the New World, 18 to the Old World, and another are 10 found in both hemispheres. His treatment divides the genus into five subgenera: Aporophallus; Itajahya; Endophallus; Satyrus; and Phallus. [7] Spanish mycologist Francisco D. Calonge recognized 25 species in 2005, [8] while according to the Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed, 2008), there are 18 species. [13] Recently proposed species (not accounted for by these publications) include P. maderensis (2008), [14] P. luteus (2009), [15] P. drewesii (2009), [16] and P. calongei (2009). [17]

Description

The immature fruit bodies of Phallus species grow underground, are roughly spherical to ovoid, and have a soft or gelatinous surface. Conspicuous white rhizomorphs extend from the base of this structure and help to anchor it in the soil. The outer tissue layer, or peridium, is white to pale, smooth, firm-membranous. The slimy spore mass, or gleba, is attached to outer surface of the cap, and is colored dark olivaceous to blackish brown. The stalks of Phallus mushrooms are called receptacles: they are upright, cylindrical, hollow, spongy, and bearing roughly bell-shaped cap with irregularly branching ridges on the outer surface. Some species have an indusium, a net-like structure that extends from the cap to the ground. [18] The gleba is slimy and pale greenish-yellow; in several species the gleba has a foul, carrion-like odor, which attracts insects that then help disperse the spores. Mosquitoes, however, that feed on the gleba are killed, suggesting the fungus may contain compounds that could be used as an attractant or biocontrol agent. [19]

The spores of Phallus species are small, ellipsoid, and somewhat translucent (hyaline). [18] The spores of various Phallaceae species, including P. ravenelii has been shown to be smooth and featureless using scanning electron microscopy. Roughened spore surfaces are considered by some mycologists to be an adaptation that results in friction during travel in the air, and increase dispersal distances. Phallus spores are not airborne at any time in their life cycle. [20]

Nigerian folklore

The Yoruba people of Nigeria call stinkhorn mushrooms Akufodewa, a combination of the words ku (die), fun (for), ode (hunter), and a (search). The Yoruban name reflects the belief that hunters, smelling the glebal odor in the forest, may mistake the smell for a dead animal and search for it. [21] Phallus mushrooms are also used by the Yoruba to prepare a charm known as Egbe, which reputedly "has the power of making one invisible in the face of danger." [22] Stinkhorns are also used by the Urhobo and Ibibio people of southeastern Nigeria to prepare "harmful charms". They associate the fungus with the millipede, as is reflected in their names for the mushrooms: the Urhobo call it Uwovwi-rerivwi, from the Urhobo Uwivwi (house), re (of), rivwe (millipede); the Ibido name is Efoketim, from the Ibidio efok (house) and etim (millipede). The Ụkwụànì of Asaba, who associate the stinkhorns with death because of their smell, use the fungus to prepare "harmful charms and charms which confer immunity against evil attacks." They call the mushrooms Oga-egungun, from the Ụkwụànì oga (net or fence) and egungun (dead person). [22]

Habitat

Phallus hadriani Phallus hadriani.jpg
Phallus hadriani

Phallus mushrooms are found amongst leaf litter in damp woodland with the rhizomorphs attached to buried wood. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, but with richer species diversity in tropical regions. [18]

Species

  1. Phallus atrovolvatus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Costa Rica
  2. Phallus aurantiacus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Nigeria
  3. Phallus callichrous  – Stinkhorn fungus from South America
  4. Phallus calongei  – Stinkhorn fungus from Pakistan
  5. Phallus celebicus  – Stinkhorn fungus from India
  6. Phallus cinnabarinus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Taiwan
  7. Phallus coronatus  – Species of fungus – Vietnam [23]
  8. Phallus drewesii  – Stinkhorn fungus from São Tomé
  9. Phallus duplicatus  – Netted stinkhorn or wood witch fungus
  10. Phallus flavidus  – Stinkhorn fungus from the Seychelles
  11. Phallus flavocostatus  – Stinkhorn fungus from East Asia
  12. Phallus formosanus  – Species of fungus
  13. Phallus glutinolens  – Stinkhorn fungus from Brazil
  14. Phallus granulosodenticulatus  – Species of fungus
  15. Phallus hadriani  – Dune stinkhorn or sand stinkhorn fungus
  16. Phallus haitangensis  – Species of Agaricomycetes description 2016, Yunnan Province [24]
  17. Phallus impudicus  – Fungus known as the common stinkhorn
  18. Phallus indusiatus  – Widespread species of stinkhorn fungus Also known as bamboo fungus, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady
  19. Phallus luteus  – Species of stinkhorn fungus A new combination proposed in 2008 for the fungus formerly known as Dictyophora indusiata f. lutea. [15]
  20. Phallus macrosporus  – Stinkhorn fungus from China
  21. Phallus maderensis  – Stinkhorn fungus from Madeira island
  22. Phallus minusculus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Tanzania Found by Francisco Calonge and Hanns Kreisel and first reported in 2002. [25]
  23. Phallus multicolor  – Species of stinkhorn fungus
  24. Phallus pygmaeus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Brazil This species is a miniature Phallus (up to 1 cm tall) found in the Brazilian State Pernambuco. [26]
  25. Phallus ravenelii  – Stinkhorn fungus from North America – Ravenel's stinkhorn
  26. Phallus rubicundus  – Tropical stinkhorn fungus
  27. Phallus tenuissimus  – Stinkhorn fungus from Yunnan, China

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phallaceae</span> Family of fungi

Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.

<i>Phallus indusiatus</i> Widespread species of stinkhorn fungus

Phallus indusiatus, commonly called the bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady, is a fungus in the family Phallaceae, or stinkhorns. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and is found in southern Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Australia, where it grows in woodlands and gardens in rich soil and well-rotted woody material. The fruit body of the fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on a stalk and a delicate lacy "skirt", or indusium, that hangs from beneath the cap and reaches nearly to the ground. First described scientifically in 1798 by French botanist Étienne Pierre Ventenat, the species has often been referred to a separate genus Dictyophora along with other Phallus species featuring an indusium. P. indusiatus can be distinguished from other similar species by differences in distribution, size, color, and indusium length.

<i>Phallus impudicus</i> Fungus known as the common stinkhorn

Phallus impudicus, known colloquially as the common stinkhorn, is a widespread fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature, the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th-century England. It is a common mushroom in Europe and North America, where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens. It appears from summer to late autumn. The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy, dark olive colored conical head. Known as the gleba, this material contains the spores, and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor—described as resembling carrion. Despite its foul smell, it is not usually poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France and Germany.

<i>Phallus ravenelii</i> Stinkhorn fungus from North America

Phallus ravenelii, commonly known as Ravenel's stinkhorn, is a fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is found in eastern North America. Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature. It is saprobic, and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in wood debris, from forests to mulched gardens or sawdust piles in urban areas. It appears from August to October. The fruit body emerges from a pink or lavender-colored egg to form a tall, cylindrical, hollow and spongy white stalk with a bell-shaped cap. The remains of the egg persist as a white to pink or lilac volva at the base of the stalk. The cap is covered in a foul-smelling olive-green spore slime, which attracts insects that help to spread the spores. Sometimes, the cap has a "veil" attached—a thin membrane that hangs underneath. The lack of a roughly ridged and pitted cap differentiates it from the closely related Phallus impudicus. The fungus is named after Henry William Ravenel, a botanist who first discovered it in 1846, though it remained undescribed until 1873. It is considered to be an edible mushroom while in its egg form.

<i>Phallus duplicatus</i> Netted stinkhorn or wood witch fungus

Phallus duplicatus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. The bell-shaped to oval cap is green-brown, the cylindrical stalk is white. When mature the cap becomes sticky with a slimy green coating that attracts flies that disperse its spores, and it has a distinct, "netted" universal veil. The fungus is edible when still in the "egg" stage, before the fruit body has expanded. It grows often in public lawns, and can also be found in meadows.

<i>Phallus hadriani</i> Dune stinkhorn or sand stinkhorn fungus

Phallus hadriani, commonly known as the dune stinkhorn or the sand stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. It is a widely distributed species, and is native to Asia, Europe, and North America. In Australia, it is probably an introduced species. The stalk of the fruit body reaches up to 20 cm (7.9 in) tall by 4 cm (1.6 in) thick, and is spongy, fragile, and hollow. At the top of the stem is a ridged and pitted, thimble-like cap over which is spread olive-colored spore slime (gleba). Shortly after emerging, the gleba liquefies and releases a fetid odor that attracts insects, which help disperse the spores. Said to be edible in its immature egg-like stage, it typically grows in public lawns, yards and gardens, usually in sandy soils. Phallus hadriani may be distinguished from the similar P. impudicus by the presence of a pink or violet-colored volva at the base of the stem, and by differences in odor.

<i>Mutinus caninus</i> Species of fungus

Mutinus caninus, commonly known as the dog stinkhorn, is a small thin, phallus-shaped woodland fungus, with a dark tip. It is often found growing in small groups on wood debris, or in leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Europe, Asia, and eastern North America. It is not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature 'eggs' being consumed.

<i>Clathrus ruber</i> Species of fungus in the stinkhorn family

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The fungus is saprobic, feeding off decaying woody plant material, and is often found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil, grassy places, or on woodchip garden mulches. Although considered primarily a European species, C. ruber has been introduced to other areas, and now has a wide distribution that includes all continents except Antarctica. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.

<i>Lysurus mokusin</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even close in on each other to form a spire. The gleba—an olive-green slimy spore mass—is carried on the outer surface of the arms. The fruit body, which has an odor comparable to "fresh dog feces", "rotting flesh", or "sewage" when mature, is edible in its immature "egg" stage. The fungus is native to Asia, and is also found in Australia, Europe and North America, where it is probably an introduced species. It has been used medicinally in China as an ulcer remedy.

<i>Lysurus periphragmoides</i> Species of fungus

Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch. The fruit body, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore mass, the gleba, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the family Phallaceae, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible.

<i>Itajahya</i> Genus of fungi

Itajahya is a fungal genus in the family Phallaceae. The genus, widespread in tropical and subtropical areas, contains three species. Characters in this genus include a white calyptra, and lamellate plates covered with gleba. The gleba has a white mottled surface, and the cap appears wig-like when removed of the gleba. The thick, stout stalk has many chambered walls. The species Itajahya rosea, formerly classified in the genus Phallus, was transferred to Itajahya in 2012 when molecular phylogenetic analysis revealed that it was not closely related to other Phallus species.

<i>Pseudocolus fusiformis</i> Species of fungus

Pseudocolus fusiformis is a stinkhorn mushroom in the Phallaceae, a family well known for a remarkable range of fruit body types. It is the most widely distributed member of the genus Pseudocolus and has been found in the United States, Australia, Japan, Java, and the Philippines. It is commonly known as the stinky squid, because of its fetid odor, and its three or four upright "arms" which are connected at the top. The malodorous smell comes from the dark greenish slimy gleba covering the inside faces of the arms, and attracts insects that help to disperse the spores.

<i>Mutinus elegans</i> Species of stinkhorn fungus

Mutinus elegans, commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn, the dog stinkhorn, the headless stinkhorn, or the devil's dipstick, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. A saprobic species, it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter, during summer and autumn in Japan, Europe, and eastern North America. The fruit body begins its development in an "egg" form, resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground. As the fungus matures, a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip. The stalk is covered with a foul-smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length. Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores, assisting in their dispersal. Due to their repellent odor, mature specimens are not generally considered edible, although there are reports of the immature "eggs" being consumed. In the laboratory, Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans.

<i>Phallus calongei</i> Stinkhorn fungus from Pakistan

Phallus calongei is a species of stinkhorn mushroom. Found in Pakistan, it was described as new to science in 2009. Starting out as an "egg", the fully expanded fruit body consists of a single, thick, stipe with a cap attached to the apex and covered with olive-green, slimy spore-containing gleba. It is distinguished from other similar Phallus species by a combination of features, including a pinkish, reticulated (network-like) cap, and a stipe that is tapered at both ends. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown.

<i>Staheliomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Staheliomyces is a fungal genus in the stinkhorn family. The genus is monotypic, containing the single neotropical species Staheliomyces cinctus, also known as the strangled stinkhorn. It is found in Central America and northern South America. The fruit body of the fungus is a hollow, whitish, cylindric stalk up to 16 cm (6.3 in) tall, with conspicuous pits and holes. Near the top of the stalk is a pinched-off zone covered with unpleasant-smelling slimy spore mass called gleba. The gleba attracts stingless bees that help disseminate the spores.

<i>Aseroe floriformis</i> Species of fungus

Aseroe floriformis is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family Phallaceae. Described as a new species in 2005, it is known only from northeast Brazil, where it grows on sandy soil. The fruit body has a raspberry-colored stipe, and, unlike other members of the genus Aseroe does not have radiating branches.

<i>Phallus atrovolvatus</i> Stinkhorn fungus from Costa Rica

Phallus atrovolvatus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. Found in Costa Rica, it was described as new to science in 2005.

<i>Phallus cinnabarinus</i> Stinkhorn fungus from Taiwan

Phallus cinnabarinus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. Originally named in 1957 as Dictyophora cinnabarina, it was transferred to the genus Phallus in 1996 by Hanns Kreisel. It is found in Taiwan.

Phallus maderensis is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. Found in Madeira island, it was described as new to science in 2005.

<i>Phallus multicolor</i> Species of stinkhorn fungus

Phallus multicolor is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae or "stinkhorns".

References

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  2. ↑ Linnaeus C. (1753). Species Plantarum. Vol. 2. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. p. 1178. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
  3. ↑ Persoon CH. (1801). System Mycologicum Fungorum (in Latin). Göttingen: Apud H. Dieterich. p. 242. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
  4. ↑ Pilát A. (1958). "Phallaceae". In Pilát A (ed.). Flora CSR B-1, Gasteromycetes. Prague, Czechoslovakia: Ceskoslovenské Akademie. pp. 50–79.
  5. ↑ Liu B, Fan L, Li J, Li T, Song B, Liu J (2005). Sclerodermatales, Tulostomatales, Phallales et Podaxales. Flora fungorum Sinicorum. Vol. 23. Beijing, China: Science Press.
  6. ↑ Andersson O. (1989). "Stinksvampen, Phallus impudicus, i Norden". Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. 83: 219–41.
  7. 1 2 Kreisel H. (1996). "A preliminary survey of the genus Phallus sensu lato" (PDF). Czech Mycology. 48 (4): 273–81. doi:10.33585/cmy.48407. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-29. Retrieved 2016-10-02.
  8. 1 2 Calonge FD. (2005). "Clave provisional para identificar las especies de Phallus" [A tentative key to identify the species of Phallus]. Boletín de la Sociedad Micológica de Madrid (in Spanish). 29: 9–18.
  9. ↑ Sarasini M. (2005). Gasteromiceti epigei (in Italian). Vicenza: Fondazione Centro Studi Micologici.
  10. ↑ Baseia IG, Maia LC, Calonge FD (2006). "Notes on Phalalles in the Neotropics". Boletín de la Sociedad Micológica Madrid. 30: 87–93.
  11. ↑ "Dictyophora Desv". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
  12. ↑ "Dictyophora Desv. 1809". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2010-10-25.
  13. ↑ Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CABI. p.  520. ISBN   978-0-85199-826-8.
  14. ↑ Calonge FD, de Sequeira MM, Freitas T, Rocha E, Franquinho L (2008). "Phallus maderensis sp. nov., found in Madeira, Portugal" (PDF). Boletín de la Sociedad Micológica de Madrid. 32: 101–4.
  15. 1 2 Kasuya T. (2008). "Phallus luteus comb. nov., a new taxonomic treatment of a tropical phalloid fungus". Mycotaxon. 106: 7–13.
  16. ↑ Desjardin DE, Perry BA (2009). "A new species of Phallus from São Tomé, Africa". Mycologia. 101 (4): 545–47. doi:10.3852/08-166. PMID   19623935. S2CID   8468063.
  17. ↑ Moreno G, Khalid AN, Alvarado P (2009). "A new species of Phallus from Pakistan". Mycotaxon. 108: 457–62. doi:10.5248/108.457.
  18. 1 2 3 Laessoe T, Pegler DN, Spooner B (1995). British Puffballs, Earthstars and Stinkhorns: an Account of the British Gasteroid Fungi. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. ISBN   0-947643-81-8.
  19. ↑ Gardezi RA. (1992). "The fungus Phallus rubicundus: Possible attractant and bio-control agent for mosquitoes". Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 35 (10): 409–10. ISSN   0030-9885.
  20. ↑ Burk WR, Flegler SL, Hess WM (1982). "Ultrastructural studies of Clathraceae and Phallaceae (Gasteromycetes) spores". Mycologia. 74 (1): 166–68. doi:10.2307/3792646. JSTOR   3792646.
  21. ↑ Oso BA. (1975). "Mushrooms and the Yoruba people of Nigeria". Mycologia. 67 (2): 311–19. doi:10.2307/3758423. JSTOR   3758423. PMID   1167931.
  22. 1 2 Oso BA. (1976). "Phallus aurantiacus from Nigeria". Mycologia. 68 (5): 1076–82. doi:10.2307/3758723. JSTOR   3758723. PMID   995138.
  23. ↑ Rebriev YA, Pham THG, Alexandrova AV (2014). "Phallus coronatus sp. nov. from Vietnam". Mycotaxon. 127: 93–96. doi:10.5248/127.93.
  24. ↑ Huili LI, Xuelan MA, Mortimer Peter E., Karunarathna Samantha C., Jianchu XU, Hyde Kevin D. (2016). "Phallus haitangensis, a new species of stinkhorn from Yunnan Province, China". Phytotaxa. 280 (2): 116–128. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.280.2.2 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Calonge FD. (2002). "Phallus minusculus sp. nova from Tropical Africa". Feddes Repertorium. 113 (7–8): 600–602. doi:10.1002/fedr.200290007.
  26. ↑ Baseia IG, Gibertoni TB, Maia LC (2003). "Phallus pygmaeus, a new minute species from a Brazilian tropical rainforest". Mycotaxon. 85: 77–79. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
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