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French exhibits perhaps the most extensive phonetic changes (from Latin) of any of the Romance languages. Similar changes are seen in some of the northern Italian regional languages, such as Lombard or Ligurian. Most other Romance languages are significantly more conservative phonetically, with Spanish, Italian, and especially Sardinian showing the most conservatism, and Portuguese, Occitan, Catalan, and Romanian showing moderate conservatism. [1]
French also shows enormous phonetic changes between the Old French period and the modern language. Spelling, however, has barely changed, which accounts for the wide differences between current spelling and pronunciation. Some of the most profound changes have been:
Only some of the changes are reflected in the orthography, which generally corresponds to the pronunciation of c. 1100–1200 CE (the Old French period) rather than modern pronunciation.
This page documents the phonological history of French from a relatively technical standpoint. See also History of French#Internal phonological history for a less technical introduction.
A profound change in very late spoken Latin (Vulgar Latin, the forerunner of all the Romance languages) was the restructuring of the vowel system of Classical Latin. Latin had thirteen distinct vowels: ten pure vowels (long and short versions of ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩), and three diphthongs (⟨ae, oe, au⟩). [2] What happened to Vulgar Latin is set forth in the table. [3]
Essentially, the ten pure vowels were reduced to the seven vowels /aɛeiɔou/, and vowel length was no longer a distinguishing feature. The diphthongs ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ fell in with /ɛ/ and /e/, respectively. ⟨au⟩ was retained, but various languages (including Old French) eventually turned it into /ɔ/ after the original /ɔ/ fell victim to further changes.[ citation needed ]
Form ("to sing") | Latin | Vulgar Latin1[ citation needed ] | Old French | Modern French | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
spelling | pronunciation | spelling | pronunciation | |||
Infinitive | cantāre | */kanˈtaːre/ | chanter | /tʃanˈtæɾ/ | chanter | /ʃɑ̃ˈte/ |
Past Part. | cantātum | */kanˈtaːtu/ | chanté(ṭ) | /tʃanˈtæ(θ)/ | chanté | /ʃɑ̃ˈte/ |
Gerund | cantandum | */kanˈtandu/ | chantant | /tʃanˈtant/ | chantant | /ʃɑ̃ˈtɑ̃/ |
1sg. indic. | cantō | */ˈkanto/ | chant | /tʃant/ | chante | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
2sg. indic. | cantās | */ˈkantas/ | chantes | /ˈtʃantəs/ | chantes | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
3sg. indic. | cantat | */ˈkantat/ | chante(ṭ) | /ˈtʃantə(θ)/ | chante | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
1pl. indic.2 | cantāmus | */kanˈtaːmos/ | chantons | /tʃanˈtuns/ | chantons | /ʃɑ̃ˈtɔ̃/ |
2pl. indic. | cantātis | */kanˈtaːtes/ | chantez | /tʃanˈtæts/ | chantez | /ʃɑ̃ˈte/ |
3pl. indic. | cantant | */ˈkantant/ | chantent | /ˈtʃantə(n)t/ | chantent | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
1sg. subj. | cantem | */ˈkante/ | chant | /tʃant/ | chante | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
2sg. subj. | cantēs | */ˈkantes/ | chanz | /tʃants/ | chantes | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
3sg. subj. | cantet | */ˈkantet/ | chant | /tʃant/ | chante | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
1pl. subj.2 | cantēmus | */kanˈteːmos/ | chantons | /tʃanˈtuns/ | chantions | /ʃɑ̃ˈtjɔ̃/ |
2pl. subj. | cantētis | */kanˈteːtes/ | chantez | /tʃanˈtæts/ | chantiez | /ʃɑ̃ˈtje/ |
3pl. subj. | cantent | */ˈkantent/ | chantent | /ˈtʃantə(n)t/ | chantent | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
2sg. impv. | cantā | */ˈkanta/ | chante | /ˈtʃantə/ | chante | /ʃɑ̃t(ə)/ |
2pl. impv.3 | cantāte | */kanˈtaːte/ | chantez | /tʃanˈtæts/ | chantez | /ʃɑ̃ˈte/ |
The complex but regular French sound changes have caused irregularities in the conjugation of Old French verbs, like stressed stems caused by historic diphthongization (amer, aim, aimes, aime, aiment, but amons, amez), or regular loss of certain phonemes (vivre, vif, vis, vit). Later in Modern French, these changes were limited to fewer irregular verbs. Modern French also had lost the class of rather unpredictable -ier verbs (resulting from ejection of /j/ into the infinitive suffix -āre, which still exists in some langues d'oïl ), having been replaced by simple -er verbs plus ⟨-i⟩ instead, as in manier, but Old French laissier → laisser.
Vowel length became automatically determined by syllable structure, with stressed open syllables having long vowels and other syllables having short vowels. Furthermore, the stress on accented syllables became more pronounced in Vulgar Latin than in Classical Latin. That tended to cause unaccented syllables to become less distinct, while working further changes on the sounds of the accented syllables. That especially applied to the new long vowels, many of which broke into diphthongs but with different results in each daughter language.[ citation needed ]
Old French underwent more thorough alterations of its sound system than did the other Romance languages. Vowel breaking is observed to some extent in Spanish and Italian: Vulgar Latin focu(s) "fire" (in Classical Latin, "hearth") becomes Italian fuoco and Spanish fuego. In Old French, it went even further than in any other Romance language; of the seven vowels inherited from Vulgar Latin, only /i/ remained unchanged in stressed open syllables:[ citation needed ]
Furthermore, all instances of Latin long ū > Proto-Romance /u/ became /y/, the lip-rounded sound that is written ⟨u⟩ in Modern French. That occurred in both stressed and unstressed syllables, regardless of whether open or closed.
Latin au did not share the fate of /ɔ/ or /o/; Latin aurum > OF or, "gold": not *œur nor *our. Latin au must have been retained at the time such changes were affecting Proto-Romance.
Changes affecting consonants were also quite pervasive in Old French. Old French shared with the rest of the Vulgar Latin world the loss of final ⟨-M⟩. Old French also dropped many internal consonants when they followed the strongly stressed syllable; Latin petram > Proto-Romance */ˈpɛðra/ > OF pierre; cf. Spanish piedra ("stone").
Letter | Classical Latin | Vulgar Latin | Proto- Western Romance | Early Old French (through early 12th c.) | Later Old French (from late 12th c.) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
closed | open | closed | open | ||||
a | /a/ | /a/ | ⟨a⟩/a/ | ⟨e, ie⟩/æ,iə/ | ⟨a⟩/a/ | ⟨e, ie⟩/ɛ,jɛ/ | |
ā | /aː/ | ||||||
ae | /ai/ | /ɛ/ | ⟨e⟩/ɛ/ | ⟨ie⟩/iə/ | ⟨e⟩/ɛ/ | ⟨ie⟩/jɛ/ | |
e | /e/ | ||||||
oe | /oi/ | /e/ | /e/ | ⟨e⟩/e/ | ⟨ei⟩/ei/ | ⟨oi⟩/oi/>/wɛ/ | |
ē | /eː/ | ||||||
i | /i/ | /ɪ/ | |||||
y | /y/ | ||||||
ī | /iː/ | /i/ | ⟨i⟩/i/ | ||||
ȳ | /yː/ | ||||||
au | /aw/ | /aw/ | ⟨o⟩/ɔ/ | ||||
o | /o/ | /ɔ/ | ⟨o⟩/ɔ/ | ⟨uo⟩/uə/ | ⟨o⟩/ɔ/ | ⟨ue⟩/wɛ/>/ø/ | |
ō | /oː/ | /o/ | /o/ | ⟨o⟩/o/ | ⟨ou⟩/ou/ | ⟨o(u)⟩/u/ | ⟨eu⟩/eu/>/ø/ |
u | /u/ | /ʊ/ | |||||
ū | /uː/ | /u/ | ⟨u⟩/y/ | ||||
In some contexts, /oi/ became /e/, still written ⟨oi⟩ in Modern French. During the early Old French period, it was pronounced as the writing suggests, as /oi/ as a falling diphthong: /oi̯/. It later shifted to become rising, /o̯i/, before becoming /o̯e/. The sound developed variously in different varieties of Oïl: most of the surviving languages maintain a pronunciation as /we/, but Literary French adopted a dialectal pronunciation, /wa/. The doublet of français and François in modern French orthography demonstrates the mix of dialectal features.[ citation needed ]
At some point during the Old French period, vowels with a following nasal consonant began to be nasalized. While the process of losing the final nasal consonant took place after the Old French period, the nasal vowels that characterize Modern French appeared during the period in question.[ citation needed ]
The following table shows the most important modern outcomes of Vulgar Latin vowels, starting from the seven-vowel system of Proto-Western Romance stressed syllables: /a/,/ɛ/,/e/,/i/,/ɔ/,/o/,/u/. The vowels developed differently in different contexts, with the most important contexts being:
The developments in unstressed syllables were both simpler and less predictable. In Proto-Western Romance, there were only five vowels in unstressed syllables: /a/,/e/,/i/,/o/,/u/, as low-mid vowels /ɛ/,/ɔ/ were raised to /e/,/o/. These syllables were not subject to diphthongization and many of the other complex changes that affected stressed syllables. This produced many lexical and grammatical alternations between stressed and unstressed syllables. However, there was a strong tendency (especially beginning in the Middle French period, when the formerly strong stress accent was drastically weakened) to even out these alternations. In certain cases in verbal paradigms an unstressed variant was imported into stressed syllables, but mostly it was the other way around, with the result that in Modern French all of the numerous vowels can appear in unstressed syllables.
Gallo-Romance | Context 1 | Proto-French | Later Old French | Modern French | Example |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vowels not followed by /s/,/n/,/l/,/ɲ/ | |||||
/a/ | closed | /a/ | partem > part/paʁ/ "part" | ||
open | /æ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɛ/; /e/+# 1 | mare > mer/mɛʁ/ "sea", amātum > /aiˈmɛθ/ > aimé/eˈme/ "loved" | |
before Gallo-Romance /u,o/ or /w/ | /ɔ/ | /ɔ/, combines with next element (/w,u,o,ɣu,ɣo/) to make a new diphthong, /ɔw/ | /u/ | fagvm > Gallo-Romance /faɣo/ > Old French fou/fɔw/ [5] + diminutive -et > fouet/fwɛ/ "beech tree"; bavan (< Gaulish) > /bɔwə/ > boue/bu/ "mud" | |
palatal + open | /iæ/ | /jɛ/ | /jɛ/; /je/+# 1 | medietātem > Vulgar Latin /mejeˈtate/ > /mejˈtʲate/ > Early Old French /meiˈtiɛθ/ 3 > Late Old French /moiˈtjɛ/ > moitié/mwaˈtje/ "half"; cārum > Old French chier/tʃjɛr/ > cher/ʃɛʁ/ "dear" | |
/ɛ/ | closed | /ɛ/ | septem > sept/sɛt/ "seven" | ||
open | /iɛ/ | /jɛ/ | /jɛ/; /je/+# 1 | heri > hier/jɛʁ/ "yesterday"; pedem > pied/pje/ "foot" | |
/e/ | closed | /e/ | /ɛ/ | siccvm > sec/sɛk/ "dry" | |
open | /ei/ | /oi/ > /wɛ/ | /wa/ | pēram > poire/pwaʁ/; vidēre > early Old French vedeir/vəˈðeir/ > Old French vëoir/vəˈoir/ > voir/vwaʁ/ "to see" | |
palatal + open | /iei/ | /i/ | cēram > cire/siʁ/ "wax"; mercēdem > merci/mɛʁˈsi/ "mercy" | ||
/i/ | all | /i/ | vītam > vie/vi/ "life"; vīllam > ville > /vil/ "town" | ||
/ɔ/ | closed | /ɔ/ | /ɔ/; /o/+# 1 | portam > porte/pɔʁt/ "door"; *sottum, *sottam > sot, sotte/so/, /sɔt/ "silly" | |
open | /uɔ/ | /wɛ/ | /œ/,/ø/ 2 | novum > neuf/nœf/ "new"; cor > *corem > cœur/kœʁ/ "heart" | |
/o/ | closed | /o/ | /u/ | subtus > /ˈsottos/ > sous/su/ "under"; surdum > sourd/suʁ/ "deaf" | |
open | /ou/ | /eu/ | /œ/,/ø/ 2 | nōdvm > nœud/nø/ "knot" | |
/u/ | all | /y/ | dv̄rvm > dur/dyʁ/ "hard"; nūllam > nulle/nyl/ "none (fem.)" | ||
/au/ | all | /au/ | /ɔ/ | /ɔ/; /o/+# 1 | aurum > or/ɔʁ/ "gold" |
followed by /z/ | /oː/ | /o/ | cavsam > chose/ʃoz/ "thing" | ||
followed by Gallo-Romance /w/,/ɣu/,/ɣo/ | /ɔ/ | combining with second element to make /ɔw/ | /u/ | *traucon (< Gaulish) > Gallo-Romance /trauɣo/ > Old French /trɔw/ [5] > trou/tʁu/ "hole" | |
Vowels + /n/ or /m/ | |||||
/an/ | closed | /an/ | /ã/ | /ɑ̃/[ɒ̃] | annvm > an/ɑ̃/ "year"; cantum > chant/ʃɑ̃/ "song" |
open | /ain/ | /ɛ̃n/ | /ɛn/ | sānam > saine/sɛn/ "healthy (fem.)"; amat > aime/ɛm/ "(he) loves" | |
late closed | /ɛ̃/ | /ɛ̃/[æ̃] | sānvm > sain/sɛ̃/ "healthy (masc.)"; famem > faim/fɛ̃/ "hunger" | ||
palatal + late closed | /iain/ > /iɛn/ | /jɛ̃/ | /jɛ̃/[jæ̃] | canem > chien/ʃjɛ̃/ "dog" | |
/ɛn/ | closed | /en/ | /ã/ | /ɑ̃/[ɒ̃] | dentem > dent/dɑ̃/ "teeth" |
open | /ien/ | /jɛ̃n/ | /jɛn/ | tenent > tiennent/tjɛn/ "(they) hold" | |
late closed | /jɛ̃/ | /jɛ̃/[jæ̃] | bene > bien/bjɛ̃/ "well"; tenet > tient/tjɛ̃/ "(he) holds" | ||
/en/ | closed | /en/ | /ã/ | /ɑ̃/[ɒ̃] | lingua > langue/lɑ̃g/ "tongue" [ citation needed ] |
open | /ein/ | /ẽn/ | /ɛn/ | pēnam > peine/pɛn/ "sorrow, trouble" | |
late closed | /ẽ/ | /ɛ̃/[æ̃] | plēnvm > plein/plɛ̃/ "full"; sinum > sein/sɛ̃/ "breast" | ||
palatal + late closed | /iein/ > /in/ | /ĩ/ | racēmvm > raisin/rɛzɛ̃/ "grape" | ||
/in/ | closed, late closed | /in/ | quīnque > *cīnque > cinq/sɛ̃k/ "five"; fīnvm > fin/fɛ̃/ "fine, thin (masc.)" | ||
open | /ĩn/ | /in/ | fīnam > fine/fin/ "fine, thin (fem.)" | ||
/ɔn/ | closed | /on/ | /ũ/ | /ɔ̃/[õ] | pontem > pont/pɔ̃/ "bridge" |
open | /on/, /uon/ | /ũn/, /wɛ̃n/ | /ɔn/ | bonam > bonne/bɔn/ "good (fem.)" | |
late closed | /ũ/, /wɛ̃/ | /ɔ̃/[õ] | bonum > OF buen > bon/bɔ̃/ "good (masc.)"; comes > OF cuens "count (noble rank) (nom.)" | ||
/on/ | closed, late closed | /on/ | /ũ/ | /ɔ̃/[õ] | dōnvm > don/dɔ̃/ "gift" |
open | /ũn/ | /ɔn/ | dōnat > donne/dɔn/ "(he) gives" | ||
/un/ | closed, late closed | /yn/ | /ỹ/ | /œ̃/ > /ɛ̃/[æ̃] | v̄nvm > un/œ̃/ > /ɛ̃/ "one"; perfv̄mvm > parfum/paʁˈfœ̃/ > /paʁˈfɛ̃/ "perfume" |
open | /ỹn/ | /yn/ | v̄nam > une/yn/ "one (fem.)"; plv̄mam > plume/plym/ "feather" | ||
Vowels + /s/ (followed by a consonant) | |||||
/as/ | closed | /ah/ | /ɑː/ | /ɑ/[a] | bassum > bas/bɑ/ "low" |
/ɛs/ | closed | /ɛh/ | /ɛː/ | /ɛ/ | festam > fête/fɛt/ "feast" |
/es/ | closed | /eh/ | bēstiam > bête/bɛt/ "beast" | ||
/is/ | closed | /ih/ | /iː/ | /i/ | abȳssimvm > *abīsmum > abîme/abim/ "chasm" |
/ɔs/ | closed | /ɔh/ | /oː/ | /o/ | costam > côte/kot/ "coast", grossum, grossam > gros, grosse/ɡʁo/, /ɡʁos/ "fat" |
/os/ | closed | /oh/ | /uː/ | /u/ | cōnstat > *cōstat > coûte/kut/ "(it) costs" |
/us/ | closed | /yh/ | /yː/ | /y/ | fv̄stem > fût/fy/ "bole" |
Vowels + /l/ (followed by a consonant, but not /la/) | |||||
/al/ | closed | /al/ | /au/ | /o/ | falsvm > faux/fo/ "false"; palmam > paume/pom/ "palm" |
/ɛl/ | closed | /ɛl/ | /ɛau/ | bellvm > beau/bo/ (but bellam > belle/bɛl/) "beautiful" | |
late closed | /jɛl/ | /jɛu/ | /jœ/,/jø/ 2 | melivs > /miɛʎts/ > /mjɛus/ > mieux/mjø/ "better" | |
/el/ | closed | /el/ | /ɛu/ | /œ/,/ø/ 2 | capillvm > cheveu/ʃəˈvø/ "hair"; *filtrvm > feutre/føtʁ/ "felt" |
/il/ | closed, late closed | /il/ | /i/ | gentīlem > gentil/ʒɑ̃ˈti/ "nice" | |
/ɔl/ | closed | /ɔl/ | /ou/ | /u/ | follem > fou (but *follam > folle/fɔl/) "crazy"; colaphum > *colpum > coup/ku/ "blow" |
late closed | /wɔl/ | /wɛu/ | /œ/,/ø/,/jœ/,/jø/ 3 | *volet > OF vueut > veut "(he) wants" /vø/; oculus > OF uelz > yeux "eyes" /jø/ | |
/ol/ | closed | /ol/ | /ou/ | /u/ | pvlsat > pousse/pus/ "(he) pushes" |
/ul/ | closed, late closed | /yl/ | /y/ | cv̄lvm > cul/ky/ "buttocks" | |
/aul/ | closed, late closed | /awl/ | /ou/ | /u/ | cavlis > chou/ʃu/ "cabbage" |
Vowels + /i/ (from a Gallo-Romance palatal element) | |||||
/ai/ | all | /ai/ | /ɛ/ | factvm > /fait/ > fait/fɛ/ "deed"; palātivm > palais/paˈlɛ/ "palace"; plāgam > plaie/plɛ/ "wound"; placet > /plaist/ > plaît/plɛ/ "(he) pleases"; paria > paire/pɛʁ/ "pair" | |
palatal + | /iai/ > /i/ | /i/ | iacet > OF gist > gît/ʒi/ "(he) lies (on the ground)"; cacat > chie/ʃi/ "(he) shits" | ||
/ɛi/ | all | /iɛi/ | lectvm > /lɛit/ > lit/li/ "bed"; sex > six/sis/ "six"; peior > pire/piʁ/ "worse" | ||
/ei/ | all | /ei/ | /oi/ > /wɛ/ | /wa/ | tēctvm > /teit/ > toit/twa/ "roof"; rēgem > /rei/ > roi/ʁwa/ "king"; nigrvm > /neir/ > noir/nwaʁ/ "black"; fēriam > /ˈfeira/ > foire/fwaʁ/ "fair" |
/ɔi/ | all | /uɔi/ | /yi/ | /ɥi/ | noctem > /nɔit/ > nuit/nɥi/ "night"; hodiē > /ˈɔje/ > hui/ɥi/ "today"; coxa > /ˈkɔisə/ > cuisse/kɥis/ "thigh" |
/oi/ | all | /oi/ | /oi/ > /wɛ/ | /wa/ | bvxitam > /ˈboista/ > boîte/bwat/ "box"; crucem > croix/kʁwa/ "cross" |
/ui/ | all | /yi/ | /yi/ | /ɥi/ | frv̄ctvm > /fruit/ > fruit/fʁɥi/ "fruit" |
/aui/ | all | /ɔi/ | /oi/ > /wɛ/ | /wa/ | gavdia > /ˈdʒɔiə/ > joie/ʒwa/ "joy" |
Vowels plus /ɲ/ (from /n/ + a Gallo-Romance palatal element) | |||||
/aɲ/ | closed, late closed | /aɲ/ > /ain/ | /ɛ̃/ | /ɛ̃/[æ̃] | ba(l)neum > /baɲ/ > /bain/ > bain/bɛ̃/ "bath"; > sanctvm > /saɲt/ > /saint/ > saint/sɛ̃/ "holy" |
open | /aɲ/ | /ãɲ/ | /aɲ/ | montāneam > /monˈtaɲ/ > montagne/mɔ̃ˈtaɲ/ "mountain" | |
/ɛɲ/ | unattested? | ||||
/eɲ/ | closed, late closed | /eɲ/ > /ein/ | /ẽ/ | /ɛ̃/[æ̃] | pinctvm > /peɲt/ > /peint/ > peint/pɛ̃/ "painted" |
open | /eɲ/ | /ẽɲ/ | /ɛɲ/ | insigniam > enseigne/ɑ̃ˈsɛɲ/ "sign" | |
/iɲ/ | closed, late closed | unattested? | |||
open | /iɲ/ | /ĩɲ/ | /iɲ/ | līneam > ligne/liɲ/ "line" | |
/ɔɲ/ | closed, late closed | /oɲ/ > /oin/ | /wɛ̃/ | /wɛ̃/[wæ̃] | longe > /loɲ/? > /loin/ > loin/lwɛ̃/ "far" |
open | /oɲ/ | /ũɲ/ | /ɔɲ/ | *frogna (Gaulish) > frogne/fʁɔɲ/ "frown" | |
/oɲ/ | closed, late closed | /oɲ/ > /oin/ | /wɛ̃/ | /wɛ̃/[wæ̃] | pvnctvm > /poɲt/ > /point/ > point/pwɛ̃/ "point"; cvnevm > /koɲ/ > /koin/ > coin/kwɛ̃/ "wedge" |
open | /oɲ/ | /ũɲ/ | /ɔɲ/ | verecvndiam > vergogne/vɛʁˈɡɔɲ/ "shame" | |
/uɲ/ | closed, late closed | /yɲ/ > /yin/ | /ɥĩ/ | /ɥɛ̃/[ɥæ̃] | iv̄nivm > /dʒyɲ/ > /dʒyin/ > juin/ʒɥɛ̃/ "June" |
open | unattested? |
^1 "Context" refers to the syllable context at the Vulgar Latin or Gallo-Romance stage. The contexts are as follows:
Changes that occurred due to contexts that developed during the Old French stage or later are indicated in the "Modern French" column. In particular, "+#" indicates a word-final context in modern French, which generally evolved due to loss of a final consonant in Old French or Middle French. For example, loss of /θ/ in aimé "loved" (originally /aiˈmɛθ/) occurred in Old French, while loss of /t/ in sot "silly" occurred in Middle French (hence its continuing presence in spelling, which tends to reflect later Old French).
^2 Both /œ/ and /ø/ occur in modern French, and there are a small number of minimal pairs, e.g. jeune/ʒœn(ə)/ "young" vs. jeûne/ʒøn(ə)/[ʒøːn(ə)] "fast (abstain from food)". In general, however, /ø/ only occurs word-finally, before /z/, and usually before /t/, while /œ/ occurs elsewhere.
^3 However, the sequences */ueu/ from multiple origins regularly dissimilate to /jɛw/ (and later /jœ/,/jø/) except after labials and velars (Latin locus → /lueu/ → lieu/ljø/, but *volet → [vuoɫt] → [vueɫt] → [vueut] → veut/vø/). [6]
^4 The changes producing French moitié/mwaˈtje/ were approximately as follows:
Changes here affect oral and nasal vowels alike, unless otherwise indicated.
change | condition | notes |
---|---|---|
/o/ > /u/ | everywhere | |
/ue/, /eu/ > /œ/ [19] | everywhere | Nasal /wɛ̃/ segments, for which there had dialectal variation with nasal /ũ/ previously, are all shifted (or returned) to /ũ/ (ultimately becoming /ɔ̃/) before this can occur. |
| everywhere | Hence /yi/ > [yj] > [ɥi] |
/oi/ > /we/ | everywhere | Later, /we/ > /ɛ/ in some words like français; note doublet François. |
/ai/ > /ɛ/ | everywhere | afterward, ⟨ai⟩ is a common spelling of /ɛ/, regardless of origin. |
/e/ > /ɛ/ | In closed syllables. | |
Deaffrication: | everywhere | |
Phonemicization of /a/ vs. /ɑ/ | [ɑ] was initially an allophone of /a/ before /s/, /z/ that was phonemicized when /ts/ > /s/. |
Later losses of /s/ produced further minimal pairs. |
| word-internal syllable-final position | Consonants in coda position word-internally underwent weakening and loss (Gess 1996). This affected /S/ ([z] before voiced consonants and [s] before voiceless ones), /N/ (=nasal consonants), /l/, and to some extent the most sonorous coda consonant, /r/. Syllable-final /s/ reduced to [h] before deleting. Borrowings into English suggest that the process occurred first when the following consonant was voiced but not when it was unvoiced (this explains the English pronunciations isle vs. feast). This process was accompanied by compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel. Preconsonantal ⟨s⟩ was retained as a marker of vowel length (sometimes non-etymologically) until being substituted by ⟨ˆ⟩. Syllable-final nasal consonants nasalized and then were absorbed into the preceding vowels, leading to phonemic nasal vowels. Syllable-final /l/ (probably already velarized in this position) vocalized to [w] and fused with the preceding vowel to produce falling diphthongs. Where syllable-final /r/ was weakened and lost word-internally, it was mostly later restored with the notable exception of morphemic -er. |
Changes here affect oral and nasal vowels alike, unless otherwise indicated.
Nasalization of vowels before /n/ or /m/ occurred gradually over several hundred years, beginning with the low vowels, possibly as early as 900, and finishing with the high vowels, possibly as late as c. 1300. Numerous changes occurred afterwards that are still continuing.
The following steps occurred during the Old French period:
The following steps occurred during the Middle French period:
The following steps occurred during the Modern French period:
That leaves only four nasal vowels: /ɛ̃/, /ɑ̃/, /ɔ̃/, and /œ̃/, the last often no longer being distinguished from the first.
The Romance languages, also known as the Latin or Neo-Latin languages, are the languages that are directly descended from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family.
The phonology of Portuguese varies among dialects, in extreme cases leading to some difficulties in mutual intelligibility. This article on phonology focuses on the pronunciations that are generally regarded as standard. Since Portuguese is a pluricentric language, and differences between European Portuguese (EP), Brazilian Portuguese (BP), and Angolan Portuguese (AP) can be considerable, varieties are distinguished whenever necessary.
The history of the Slavic languages stretches over 3000 years, from the point at which the ancestral Proto-Balto-Slavic language broke up into the modern-day Slavic languages which are today natively spoken in Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe as well as parts of North Asia and Central Asia.
The Portuguese language developed in the Western Iberian Peninsula from Latin spoken by Roman soldiers and colonists starting in the 3rd century BC. Old Portuguese, also known as Medieval Galician, began to diverge from other Romance languages after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Germanic invasions, also known as barbarian invasions, in the 5th century, and started appearing in written documents around the 9th century. By the 13th century, Galician-Portuguese had its own literature and began to split into two languages. However, the debate of whether Galician and Portuguese are nowadays varieties of the same language, much like American English or British English, is still present. In all aspects—phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax—Portuguese is essentially the result of an organic evolution of Vulgar Latin with some influences from other languages, namely the native Gallaecian and Lusitanian languages spoken prior to the Roman domination.
Old Irish, also called Old Gaelic, is the oldest form of the Goidelic/Gaelic language for which there are extensive written texts. It was used from c. 600 to c. 900. The main contemporary texts are dated c. 700–850; by 900 the language had already transitioned into early Middle Irish. Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts written at an earlier time. Old Irish is thus forebear to Modern Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic.
In historical linguistics, vowel breaking, vowel fracture, or diphthongization is the sound change of a monophthong into a diphthong or triphthong.
Old English phonology is necessarily somewhat speculative since Old English is preserved only as a written language. Nevertheless, there is a very large corpus of the language, and the orthography apparently indicates phonological alternations quite faithfully, so it is not difficult to draw certain conclusions about the nature of Old English phonology.
Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar phonological system. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants.
French is a Romance language that specifically is classified under the Gallo-Romance languages.
The traditional English pronunciation of Latin, and Classical Greek words borrowed through Latin, is the way the Latin language was traditionally pronounced by speakers of English until the early 20th century. Although this pronunciation is no longer taught in Latin classes, it is still broadly used in the fields of biology, law, and medicine.
In historical linguistics, Bartsch's law or the Bartsch effect is the name of a sound change that took place in the early history of the langues d'oïl, for example in the development of Old French.
This article describes the phonology of the Occitan language.
Proto-Slavic is the unattested, reconstructed proto-language of all Slavic languages. It represents Slavic speech approximately from the 2nd millennium BC through the 6th century AD. As with most other proto-languages, no attested writings have been found; scholars have reconstructed the language by applying the comparative method to all the attested Slavic languages and by taking into account other Indo-European languages.
The phonology of Old Saxon mirrors that of the other ancient Germanic languages, and also, to a lesser extent, that of modern West Germanic languages such as English, Dutch, Frisian, German, and Low German.
As a member of the dialect continuum of Romance languages, Catalan displays linguistic features similar to those of its closest neighbors. The following features represent in some cases unique changes in the evolution of Catalan from Vulgar Latin; other features are common in other Romance-speaking areas.
The Proto-Slavic language, the hypothetical ancestor of the modern-day Slavic languages, developed from the ancestral Proto-Balto-Slavic language, which is the parent language of the Balto-Slavic languages. The first 2,000 years or so consist of the pre-Slavic era, a long period during which none of the later dialectal differences between Slavic languages had yet emerged. The last stage in which the language remained without internal differences that later characterize different Slavic languages can be dated around AD 500 and is sometimes termed Proto-Slavic proper or Early Common Slavic. Following this is the Common Slavic period, during which the first dialectal differences appeared but the entire Slavic-speaking area continued to function as a single language, with sound changes tending to spread throughout the entire area. By around 1000, the area had broken up into separate East Slavic, West Slavic and South Slavic languages, and in the following centuries it broke up further into the various modern Slavic languages of which the following are extant: Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn and Ukrainian in the East; Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian and the Sorbian languages in the West, and Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian in the South.
The phonological system of the Old English language underwent many changes during the period of its existence. These included a number of vowel shifts, and the palatalisation of velar consonants in many positions.
The Cornish language separated from the southwestern dialect of Common Brittonic at some point between 600 and 1000 AD. The phonological similarity of the Cornish, Welsh, and Breton languages during this period is reflected in their writing systems, and in some cases it is not possible to distinguish these languages orthographically. However, by the time it had ceased to be spoken as a community language around 1800 the Cornish language had undergone significant phonological changes, resulting in a number of unique features which distinguish it from the other neo-Brittonic languages.
Proto-Romance is the result of applying the comparative method to reconstruct the latest common ancestor of the Romance languages. To what extent, if any, such a reconstruction reflects a real état de langue is controversial. The closest real-life counterpart would have been (vernacular) Late Latin.
Old Irish was affected by a series of phonological changes that radically altered its appearance compared with Proto-Celtic and older Celtic languages. The changes occurred at a fairly rapid pace between 350 and 550 CE.
Between the fifth and eighth centuries, French borrowed a number of Germanic words with [h]... and [h] thus rejoined the French phonological system... the [h]s had disappeared by the eighteenth century.