If that results in a collision of identical short vowels, they fuse into the corresponding long vowel, as in /koˈhorte/ > /ˈkoːrte/.[2]
Final (unstressed) /m/ is lost without a trace (except, likely, for lengthening, visible in the outcomes of -um and -im, see Romance languages §Unstressed vowels for details) in polysyllabic words, as in /ˈnunkʷam/ > /ˈnunkʷa/.[3]
In (stressed) monosyllables it tends to survive as /n/, as in /ˈkʷem/ > /ˈkʷen/ > Spanish quién.[4]
Clusters consisting of a stop followed by a liquid consonant draw the stress position forward, as in /ˈinteɡram/ > /inˈteɡra/.[5]
Two apparent counterexamples are /ˈpalpebraːs/ and /ˈpullitra/, judging by the Old French outcomes palpres and poltre.[6]
/n/ is lost before fricatives, leaving the preceding vowel lengthened (but no longer nasalised), as in /ˈsponsa/ > /ˈspoːsa/.[7]
/n/ is often retained or later restored if it belongs to a prefix (in- or con-) or to a word which has forms where a fricative does not follow /n/, as in /deːˈfensa/ > French défense, thanks to related forms such as the infinitive /deːˈfendere/ > French défendre.[8]
Sequences of two /i(ː)/ generally merge to a single long /iː/, as in /au̯ˈdiiː,konˈsiliiː/ > /au̯ˈdiː,koːˈsiliː/.[9]
In some outlying rural areas, the diphthongs /ae̯/ and /au̯/ reduce to /eː/ and /oː/ respectively in Classical times. Influence from such dialects made a number of Latin words acquire monophthongized variants early on, as in /ˈfae̯ks~ˈfeːks/ or /ˈkau̯lis~ˈkoːlis/. Most words, however, remain unaffected by this.[10]
Later, 'mainstream' Latin experiences a general monophthongization of /ae̯/ to /ɛː/,[a] and of /oe̯/ to /eː/, and /au̯/ remains intact in most cases, as in /'lae̯ta,'poe̯na,'au̯rum/ > /'lɛːta,'peːna,'au̯ru/.
/w/ turns to the fricative /β/, as does original /b/ in intervocalic position, as in /ˈwiːwere,ˈtrabem/ > /ˈβiːβere,ˈtraβe/.[11]
Intervocalic /β/ in contact with a rounded vowel tends to disappear, as in /ˈriːwus/ > /ˈriːβus/ > /ˈriːus/.[12]
It is often restored if other forms of the word have a non-rounded vowel following /β/, as in the nominative plural /ˈriːβiː/.[13]
In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become /j/, and unstressed back vowels become /w/, as in /ˈfiːlius,ˈsapuiː/ > /ˈfiːljus,ˈsapwiː/.[14]
The same process also affects stressed front and back vowels in hiatus if they are antepenultimate (in the third-to-last syllable of a word). When /j/ is produced, primary stress shifts to the following vowel, but when /w/ is produced, primary stress shifts instead to the preceding syllable, as in /fiːˈliolus,teˈnueram/ > /fiːˈljolus,ˈtenwera/.[15]
If /w/ is formed after a geminate consonant, it is deleted, as in /batˈtuere/ > /ˈbattwere/ > /ˈbattere/.[16]
/w/ is deleted before unstressed back vowels, as in /ˈkarduus,ˈunɡuoː/ > /ˈkardwus,ˈunɡwoː/ > /ˈkardus,ˈunɡoː/.[17]
/w/ is occasionally deleted before unstressed non-back vowels as well, as in /februˈaːrius/ > /feˈβrwaːrjus/ > /feˈβraːrjus/.
Similarly, /kʷ/ is delabialized to /k/ before back vowels, whether they are stressed or not, as in /ˈkʷoːmodo,ˈkokʷoː/ > /ˈkoːmodo,ˈkokoː/.
If those changes result in sequences of /je(ː)/ or /wo(ː)/, they merge to /eː/ and /oː/ respectively, as in /paˈrieteːs,duˈodekim/ > /paˈrjeteːs,ˈdwodeki/ > /paˈreːteːs,ˈdoːdeki/.[18]
If /j/ forms after /kʷ/, the resulting /kʷj/ simplifies and delabializes to /kj/, as in /ˈlakʷeum/ > /ˈlakʷju/ > /ˈlakju/.[19]
/u/raises before /i(ː)/ or /j/, as in [ˈkʊi̯,ˈfʊiː] > [ˈkui̯,ˈfuiː] > Italian cui, fui[20] (not *coi, *foi).
/ɡ/ before /m/vocalizes to /u̯/, as in /fraɡˈmenta,ˈsaɡma/ > /frau̯ˈmenta,ˈsau̯ma/.[21]
/ks/ is reduced to /s/ before or after a consonant, as in /ˈkalks,ˈsekstus/ > /ˈkals,ˈsestus/, or at the end of words of more than one syllable.[22]
Intervocalically, it sometimes metathesizes to /sk/, as in /ˈwiːksit/ > /ˈβiːskit/.
Words beginning with /sC/ receive an initial supporting vowel[ɪ], unless they are preceded by a word ending in a vowel, as in [ˈskɔla] > [ɪsˈkɔla].[23]
The earliest unambiguous attestations occur in inscriptions of the second century AD.[24] In some Romance languages, such as Spanish, word-initial /sC/ remains phonologically forbidden to this day. In other languages, such as Romanian, the supporting vowel seems to have been abandoned early on, resulting in restoration of initial /sC/. Although there is barely any direct inscriptional evidence of the supporting vowel in Latin inscriptions in the Balkans,[25] its development and subsequent loss is considered to be indirectly attested by the dropping of word-initial /e/ before /sC/ in cases in which it was not originally a supporting vowel, as in Romanian spulbera 'to dust', from *ex-pulverāre.[26] Compare also /ˈskala,eksˈkadere/ > *[ɪsˈkala,eskaˈdere] > Italian scala, scadere; French échelle, échoir.[27]
/eː/ and /oː/ before /stj/ are raised, respectively, to /iː/ and /uː/, as in /ˈbeːstia,ˈoːstium/ > /ˈbiːstja,ˈuːstjo/ > Italian biscia, uscio.[28]
Compound verbs stressed on a prefix are usually reconstructed according to their prefixless equivalent, with their stress shifted forward from the prefix, as in /ˈdispliket/[b] > */disˈplaket/, by analogy with the simplex form /ˈplaket/.[29]
/ˈrekipit/ simply yields /reˈkipit/ (rather than */reˈkapit/), perhaps because the verb, while recognisable as a compound, was not easy to identify with the original /ˈkapit/.
Some words such as /ˈkolliɡoː/ 'fasten' are apparently not recognised as compounds at all and so remain unchanged.
Monosyllabic nouns ending in a consonant receive an epenthetic final /e/, as in /ˈrem/ > /ˈren/ > /ˈrene/ > French rien.[30] (Compare /ˈbene/ > French bien.)
Phonemic vowel length gradually collapses via the following changes (which only affect vowel length, not quality; this process appears to have been finished by the 5th century, compare Vulgar Latin §Loss of vowel quantity):[31]
Long vowels shorten in unstressed syllables.
Long vowels shorten in stressed closed syllables.
Short vowels lengthen in stressed open syllables.
On account of the above, the vowel inventory changes from /iːieːeaaːooːuuː/ to /iɪeɛaɔoʊu/, with pre-existing differences in vowel quality achieving phonemic status and with no distinction between original /a/ and /aː/. Additionally:
Unstressed /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ merge into /e/ and /o/ respectively.[32]
In the second syllable of words with the structure [ˌσσˈσσ], /i/ and /u/ merge into /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ respectively.[33]
Word-internal /j/ merges into a preceding consonant and palatalises it, as in /ˈkaːseum/ > /ˈkaːsju/ > /ˈkasʲu/ > Italian /ˈkatʃo/.[34]
Sporadic changes
Vowels other than /a/ are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially in contact with liquid consonants or, to a lesser extent, nasal consonants or /s/, as in /ˈanɡulus,ˈkalida,ˈspekulum/ > /ˈanɡlʊs,ˈkalda,ˈspɛklu/.[35]
In a few words, unstressed initial syllables followed by /r/ experience syncope, as in /kʷiriːˈtaːre,diːˈreːktus/ > /kriˈtare,ˈdrektʊs/.[36]
If syncope results in /β/ being followed by a consonant, it may vocalize to /u̯/, as in /ˈfabula/ > /ˈfaβla/ > */ˈfau̯la/[37] > Italian fòla[38] (cf. Romanian faulă).
If syncope results in /tl/, the cluster is generally replaced by /kl/, as in /ˈwetulus/ > /ˈβɛklʊs/.[39]
In cases where a long vowel precedes a geminate consonant, one of the elements often shortens unpredictably, sometimes leading to such doublets as /ˈkuppa~ˈkuːpa/ > /ˈkʊppa~ˈkupa/ > Spanish copa, cuba; French coupe, cuve.[40]
Long vowels sometimes shorten early on in closed syllables even if followed by two different consonants, leading to variations such as /ˈuːndekim~ˈundekim/ > /ˈundekɪ~ˈʊndekɪ/ > Italian undici, Spanish once.[41]
Conversely, the cluster [ŋk] may lengthen preceding vowels early on, as in [ˈkʷɪŋkʷɛ] > [ˈkʷiːŋkʷɛ] > [ˈkiŋkʷɛ].[42]
Pretonic vowels sporadically assimilate to or dissimilate from the stressed vowel of the following syllable.[43]
/a/ can dissimilate to /o/ before a following /a/, as in /naˈtaːre/ > /noˈtare/.
/iː/ can dissimilate to /e/ before a following /iː/, as in /diːˈwiːnus,wiːˈkiːnus/ > /deˈβinʊs,βeˈkinʊs/.
/au̯/ can dissimilate to /a/ before a following /u(ː)/, as in /au̯ˈɡustus,au̯skulˈtaːre/ > /aˈɡʊstʊs,askʊlˈtare/.
/o/ can dissimilate to /e/ before a following back vowel, as in /roˈtundus,soˈroːre/ > /reˈtʊndʊs,seˈrore/.
/i/ can assimilate to a following /a(ː)/, as in /silˈwaːtikus/ > /salˈβatɪkʊs/.
/eː/ can assimilate to a following /oː/, as in */reːniˈoːne/ > */roˈnʲone/.
/iː/ can assimilate to a following /eː/, as in /diːˈreːktus/ > */deˈrektʊs/.
/oː/ and /u/ may yield a low-mid vowel if followed by /β/, as in /ˈoːwum,ˈkolubra/ > /ˈɔβu,koˈlɔβra/ > Italian uovo, Sardinian colòra.[44]
/a/ may yield a mid vowel if preceded by /j/, as in /jakˈtaːre/ > */jekˈtare/.[45]
/r/ assimilates to a following /s/ in a number of cases, as in /ˈdorsum/ > /ˈdɔssu/.[46]
After a long vowel, the resulting /ss/ reduces to /s/, as in /ˈsuːrsum/ > /ˈsusu/.
Initial /kr/ and /kV/ sometimes voice, as in /ˈkrassus/ > /ˈɡrassʊs/.[47]
This is particularly frequent with borrowings from Greek. κρυπτή, καμπή > */ˈɡrʊpta,ˈɡamba/ > Italian grotta, gamba.[48]
/nd/ sometimes assimilates to /nn/, as in the alternation grundīre~grunnīre.[49]
There is occasional loss or assimilation of final /s/, but it is nowhere regular until a much later period.[50]
When two neighbouring syllables each contain /r/, one /r/ frequently dissimilates to /l/ or is deleted.[51]
↑ Note that the result is an open-mid /ɛː/, distinct from the close-mid /eː/ that results from the earlier 'rural' monophthongization.
↑ Etymologically dis- + placet, with the unstressed /a/ modified to /i/ in Old Latin. In the unprefixed form placet, the /a/ remained unchanged since it was stressed.
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Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.
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