Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain
Last updated
History of British post
The British Penny Black is generally acknowledged as the world's first postage stamp.
Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain surveys postal history from the United Kingdom and the postage stamps issued by that country and its various historical territories until the present day.
The postal history of the United Kingdom is notable in at least two respects: first, for the introduction of postage stamps in 1840, and secondly for the establishment of an efficient postal system throughout the British Empire, laying the foundation of many national systems still in existence today. As the originator of postage stamps, the UK is the only country that does not need to specify the country on its stamps, but only the denomination.
Until 2022 any postage stamps since the 1971 decimalisation of British currency could be used; old "definitive" design stamps without barcodes will no longer be valid from 1 August 2023, with old ones exchangeable for barcoded ones indefinitely. It was initially announced that stamps without barcodes would not be valid from 1 February 2023. However, Royal Mail decided to add an additional six month grace period.[1] Special stamps with pictures and Christmas stamps without a barcode will remain valid.[2]
Images of UK stamps are protected by Royal Mailcopyright, therefore images of current stamps are not in this article.[3]
Early history
The story begins in the 12th century with Henry I, who appointed messengers to carry letters for the government. It is estimated that between 1100 and 1135, 4,500 letters were carried by these messengers.[4] During this time, private individuals had to make their own arrangements. Henry III provided uniforms for the messengers, and Edward I instituted posting houses where the messengers could change horses. The reign of Edward II saw the first postal marking; handwritten notations saying "Haste. Post haste".[5] Centuries later, during the reign of Elizabeth I to express an extreme degree of urgency of delivery, gallows were drawn on the letter, known as Gallows letters and may additionally have a version of "haste, post haste" added.[6]
Brian Tuke was the first Master of the posts
Henry VIII created the Royal Mail in 1516, appointing Brian Tuke as "Master of the Postes", while Elizabeth I appointed Thomas Randolph as "Chief Postmaster". Under Thomas Witherings, chief postmaster under Charles I, the Royal Mail was made available to the public (1635),[4] with a regular system of post roads, houses, and staff. From this time through to the postal reforms of 1839 – 1840 it was most common for the recipient to pay the postage, although it was generally optional to prepay the charge within the British Isles.[7]
In 1661, Charles II made Henry Bishop the first Postmaster General.[4] In answer to customer complaints about delayed letters, Bishop introduced the Bishop mark, a small circle with month and day inside, applied at London, in the General Post office and the Foreign section, and soon after adopted in Scotland, (Edinburgh), and Ireland, (Dublin). In subsequent years, the postal system expanded from six roads to a network covering the country, and post offices were set up in both large and small towns, each of which had its own postmark.
In 1680 William Dockwra established the London Penny Post, a mail delivery system that delivered letters and parcels weighing up to one pound within the city of London and some of its immediate suburbs for the sum of one penny.[8]
The Great Post Office Reforms of 1839 and 1840 were championed by Rowland Hill, who is often credited with the invention of the postage stamp, as a way to reverse the steady financial losses of the Post Office. Hill convinced Parliament to adopt the Uniform Fourpenny Post whereby a flat 4d per half ounce rate (equivalent to 10s 8d per pound for heavier items) was charged regardless of distance.
From December 1839, letters could arrive at any address in the United Kingdom. The flat postage rate went into effect on 5 December 1839 but only lasted for 36 days.[9] This was immediately successful, and on 10 January 1840 the Uniform Penny Post started, charging only 1d for prepaid letters and 2d if the fee was collected from the recipient. Fixed rates meant that it was practical to avoid handling money to send a letter by using an "adhesive label", and accordingly, on 6 May, the Penny Black became the world's first postage stamp in use.
After more than 2,000 suggestions were submitted, Rowland Hill chose the method and printer, and worked by trial and error to achieve the required result. He decided to go with Perkins, Bacon & Petch, "a firm of bank-note printers, to carry out the work by the process of steel engraving, and the head of the Queen as engraved by William Wyon for a special medal struck to celebrate Her Majesty's official visit to the City of London in the year of her Coronation."[10]
The stamp was originally for use only within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and as such was, in effect, a local stamp. For this reason the name of the country was not included within the design, a situation which continued by agreement with foreign post offices, provided the sovereign's effigy appeared on the stamp. Envelopes sold with postage paid did not include this, so were marked with the country's name. In 1951, the special commemorative issue for the Festival of Britain included the name "Britain" incidentally. It could therefore be said that the name of the country then appeared for the first time on a stamp of the UK, although the word "British" had appeared on British Empire Exhibition commemorative stamps of 1924.
After the stamp was circulating, it became obvious that black was not a good choice of stamp colour, since any cancellation marks were hard to see. So, from 1841, the stamps were printed in a brick-red colour. The Penny Reds continued in use for decades with about 21billion being produced.[11]
Victorian era
The Victorian age saw an explosion of experimentation. The inefficiency of using scissors to cut stamps from the sheet inspired trials with rouletting (the Archer Roulette), and then with perforation, which became standard practice in 1854. In 1847, the (octagonal) 1 shilling (£0.05) became the first of the British embossed postage stamps to be issued, followed by 10d stamps the following year, and 6d (£0.025) values in 1854.
Surface-printed stamps first appeared in the form of a 4d stamp in 1855, printed by De La Rue, and subsequently became the standard type. 1⁄2d (halfpenny) and 1+1⁄2d (penny halfpenny – pronounced pennyhaypny or threehaypence) engraved stamps issued in 1870 were the last engraved types of Queen Victoria; the next would not appear until 1913. Surface-printed stamps of the 1860s and 1870s all used the same profile of Victoria, but a variety of frames, watermarks, and corner lettering.
A 5-shilling (abbreviated as 5/- or 5s) (£0.25) stamp first appeared in 1867, followed by 10 shilling (£0.50) and £1 values in 1878, culminating in a £5 stamp in 1882.
Meanwhile, the age of the Penny Reds had come to an end along with the Perkins Bacon printing contract. The new low values were also surface-printed: first was a penny stamp coloured Venetian red in a square frame, issued in 1880. However, the passage of the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881 necessitated new stamps valid also as revenue stamps, and so the Penny Lilac was issued in that year, inscribed "POSTAGE AND INLAND REVENUE". This stamp remained the standard letter stamp for the remainder of Victoria's reign, and vast quantities were printed. Later issues were inscribed POSTAGE & REVENUE which became the more familiar POSTAGE REVENUE.
1883 and 1884 saw experimentation with stamps using fugitive inks with the 'Lilac and Green Issue'. These were rather plain designs, low values in lilac and high values in green, because those were the only colours available. They succeeded in their purpose – relatively few of the stamps survived usage, their colours fading away when soaked from the envelope – but they were not liked by the public.
The last major issue of Victoria was the "Jubilee issue" of 1887, a set of twelve designs ranging from 1⁄2d to 1s, most printed in two colours or on coloured paper. (Although issued during the Jubilee year, they were not issued specifically for the occasion, and are thus not commemoratives.)
A perforated Penny Red, letters in four corners and plate 148, therefore printed 1871 or later.
Threepence surface-printed value from 1873.
"Penny Lilac" of 1881; 16 dots in each corner.
2½ old pence (twopenny halfpenny) value of the unpopular series of 1883/4.
5d. "Jubilee" of 1887, among the first British stamps to be printed in two colours.
Early 20th century
Common watermarks found on British stamps.
When Edward VII succeeded to the throne, new stamps became necessary. The approach was very conservative, however most of the Jubilee frames were reused and the image of the King was still a single profile. Edward's reign was fairly short and there were no major changes of design as a result. Chalk-surfaced paper was introduced during this time (this type of paper can be detected by rubbing the surface with silver, which leaves a black mark).
By contrast, the stamps of George V were innovative from the very first. The first issue made was of the 1⁄2d and 1d values, which were in the same colours as used in the previous reign. Although the main design feature remained the same – a central ellipse for the portrait, an ornamental frame, value tablet at the base and a crown at the top – a three quarter portrait was used for the first time. However, subsequent designs reverted to the standard profile.
The UK's first commemorative stamps were issued for the British Empire Exhibition in 1924. The pair of large-format stamps featured a lion in an imposing stance; they were issued twice, in 1924 and then in 1925, the stamps of each year being inscribed with the year of issue.[12] A second set of commemoratives in 1929 marked the 9th Congress of the Universal Postal Union (UPU), held in London that year.[13]
Edward VII 1d of 1902.
George V 1+1⁄2d of 1912, used in 1928 at Wootton Wawen in Warwickshire.
Independence of the Irish Free State
Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, responsibility for posts and telegraphs transferred to the new Provisional Government. Upon the formal independence of the Irish Free State in December 1922, and then transferred to the Free State Government. A Postmaster General was initially appointed by the Free State Government, being replaced by the office of Minister for Posts and Telegraphs in 1924. An early visible manifestation was the repainting of all post boxes green instead of red, plus the overprinting of British postage stamps prior to the introduction of Irish stamps.
George V wall box showing small red specks under the green paint at Tullamore
Abdication and war
A set of four stamps was issued in 1936 for Edward VIII before he abdicated.[14]George VI's coronation was marked with a commemorative: part of an omnibus issue which included every colony in the Empire. New definitives featured a profile of the King on a solid colour background, based on a plaster cast by Edmund Dulac.[15] This was a precursor of the Machins three decades later: see below.
The century of the postage stamp was celebrated in 1940 with a set of six stamps depicting Victoria and George VI side by side. By the following year, wartime exigencies affected stamp printing, with the 1937 stamps being printed with less ink, resulting in significantly lighter shades. Post-war issues included commemoratives for the return of peace, the Silver Jubilee and the 1948 Summer Olympics in 1948, and the 75th anniversary of the UPU, in 1949.
In 1950 the colours of all the low values were changed. 1951 saw a new series of high values (2s 6d, 5s, 10s, £1), and two commemoratives for the Festival of Britain.
Edward VIII 1d of 1936
George VI 2+1⁄2d of 1937
Modern era
Queen Elizabeth II "Wilding issue" booklet pane of 1952
When Elizabeth II succeeded her father in 1952, new stamps were needed. A collection of variations on a theme that came to be known as the Wilding issues, based on a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, was the result. This portrait was by photographer Dorothy Wilding.[16]
Wildings were used until 1967, when the Machin issues were introduced on 5 June.[17] The Machin design is very simple, a profile of the Queen on a solid colour background, and very popular, still being the standard British stamp. They have been printed in scores of different colours; in addition, decimalisation required new denominations, and there have been technical improvements in the printing process, resulting in literally hundreds of varieties known to specialists. Special Stamps with pictures, and Christmas Stamps are also produced; they bear a small profile silhouette of the monarch.
For over a century gummed stamps were produced in sheets, perforated so that individual stamps could be detached. Later stamps are self-adhesive, without perforations.
After first- and second-class postage was introduced, Non-Value Indicated (NVI) stamps were produced marked "1st" and "2nd", valid for the lowest weight of that class. Either a "class" stamp can be used, or denominated stamps to the value of the postage. "Class" stamps remain valid for the stated class even after price increases. When letter size in addition to weight came into use to determine postage, additional "large letter" 1st and 2nd class stamps were added.[18]
Colonies of Great Britain such as Barbados, Nevis, Fiji, Trinidad, British Guiana, and India at one time all used the William Wyon portrait of Queen Victoria on their stamps. Many formerly colonised countries whose head of state is the British monarch still include the monarch's profile, although some have branched out to stamps depicting scenery, birds or beasts without the profile.
UK stamps bearing the head of Charles III became available on 4 April 2023. Unlike previous stamps depicting male monarchs, the new set features no crowns or any other decorations.[19]
Design trends of British stamps
Coronation stamp, 1953 denominated 1s 3d
Up to the 1950s, British commemorative stamps were few and far between; most of the stamps were what are officially called "definitives",[20] in which the portrait of the reigning monarch was the dominant element. Even after commemorative stamps began to appear more often during the 1950s and early 1960s, the monarch's effigy was prominent, usually taking up a quarter to a third of the stamp's design, which limited flexibility and creativity. A change came in 1965 when the then Postmaster GeneralTony Benn issued new criteria for what could appear on stamps. Designer David Gentleman wrote to Benn about alternative design approaches, suggesting the monarch's head be replaced by another national symbol, such as a crown or the country name; "Great Britain" or "United Kingdom". A compromise, a small silhouette of the Queen based on the coinage head of Mary Gillick, was accepted and this has been the standard ever since for commemorative stamps.[21] When the monarch's portrait is part of the stamp's main design (as for example in the case of issues commemorating the Queen's birthday), then the silhouette is not needed and usually does not appear.
Another trend is the growing use of stamps to commemorate events related to the present Royal Family. Up to Elizabeth II's accession in 1952 the only commemorative stamps to have been issued related to royal events were for George V's Silver Jubilee in 1935, George VI's coronation in 1937, and a 1948 issue to commemorate George VI's 25th wedding anniversary. Since 1952, however, stamps have been issued to commemorate many royal occasions. In addition, memorial stamps have been issued after the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales (in 1998) and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (in 2002).
With regard to previous monarchs, stamps were issued in 1987 to mark the 150th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession, and in 1997 to mark the 450th anniversary of King Henry VIII's death. From 2008 to 2011 stamps were issued featuring all of England's kings and queens and also the Scottish House of Stewart.[24]
In February 2022 new barcoded "definitive design" stamps were introduced. The rectangular (matrix) codes, unique to each stamp, use a trademarked coding designed to prevent counterfeiting and to enable tracking of letters, and to enable correspondents to link digital content to their stamps. Until 2022 any 1st and 2nd class and decimal currency postage stamps could be used; old Machin and country definitive design stamps without barcodes are no longer valid from 31 July 2023, with old ones exchangeable for barcoded ones indefinitely [20] through a process which Royal Mail calls the "Stamp Swap Out scheme".[25] Special Stamps with pictures and Christmas Stamps without a barcode continued to be valid.[2] Stamps are exchanged like-for-like: a "1st class" stamp will be replaced by a 1st class one, not 95p.
Beginning in 1958, regional issues were introduced in the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.[26] While these issues are only sold at post offices in the respective countries, the Northern Irish, Scottish and Welsh issues are valid throughout the United Kingdom. The Channel Islands (since 1969) and Isle of Man (since 1973) now issue their own stamps which are not valid anywhere else.
A postage stamp is a small piece of paper issued by a post office, postal administration, or other authorized vendors to customers who pay postage. Then the stamp is affixed to the face or address-side of any item of mail—an envelope or other postal cover —which they wish to send. The item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark or cancellation mark—in modern usage indicating date and point of origin of mailing—is applied to the stamp and its left and right sides to prevent its reuse. Next the item is delivered to its addressee.
Stamp collecting is the collecting of postage stamps and related objects. It is an area of philately, which is the study of stamps. It has been one of the world's most popular hobbies since the late nineteenth century with the rapid growth of the postal service, as a stream of new stamps was produced by countries that sought to advertise their distinctiveness through their stamps.
A postmark is a postal marking made on an envelope, parcel, postcard or the like, indicating the place, date and time that the item was delivered into the care of a postal service, or sometimes indicating where and when received or in transit. Modern postmarks are often applied simultaneously with the cancellation or killer that marks postage stamps as having been used. Sometimes a postmark alone is used to cancel stamps, and the two terms are often used interchangeably. Postmarks may be applied by handstamp or machine, using methods such as rollers or inkjets, while digital postmarks are a recent innovation.
A first day of issue cover or first day cover (FDC) is a postage stamp on a cover, postal card or stamped envelope franked on the first day the issue is authorized for use within the country or territory of the stamp-issuing authority. Sometimes the issue is made from a temporary or permanent foreign or overseas office. Covers that are postmarked at sea or their next port of call will carry a Paquebot postmark. There will usually be a first day of issue postmark, frequently a pictorial cancellation, indicating the city and date where the item was first issued, and "first day of issue" is often used to refer to this postmark. Depending on the policy of the nation issuing the stamp, official first day postmarks may sometimes be applied to covers weeks or months after the date indicated.
A cancellation is a postal marking applied on a postage stamp or postal stationery to deface the stamp and to prevent its reuse. Cancellations come in a huge variety of designs, shapes, sizes, and colors. Modern cancellations commonly include the date and post office location where the stamps were mailed, in addition to lines or bars designed to cover the stamp itself. The term "postmark" refers specifically to the part that contains the date and posting location, but the term is often used interchangeably with "cancellation" as it may serve that purpose. The portion of a cancellation that is designed to deface the stamp and does not contain writing is also called the "obliteration" or killer. Some stamps are issued pre-cancelled with a printed or stamped cancellation and do not need to have a cancellation added. Cancellations can affect the value of stamps to collectors, positively or negatively. Cancellations of some countries have been extensively studied by philatelists, and many stamp collectors and postal history collectors collect cancellations in addition to the stamps themselves.
The Penny Black was the world's first adhesive postage stamp used in a public postal system. It was first issued in the United Kingdom on 1 May 1840 but was not valid for use until 6 May. The stamp features a profile of Queen Victoria.
The postal and philatelic history of Canada concerns postage of the territories which have formed Canada. Before Canadian confederation, the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland issued stamps in their own names. The postal history falls into four major periods: French control (1604–1763), British control (1763–1841), colonial government control (1841–1867), and Canada, since 1867.
This is an overview of the postage stamps and postal history of Australia.
This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Hong Kong.
The Mauritius "Post Office" stamps were issued by the British Colony Mauritius in September 1847, in two denominations: an orange-red one penny (1d) and a deep blue two pence (2d). Their name comes from the wording on the stamps reading "Post Office", which was soon changed in the next issue to "Post Paid". They are among the rarest postage stamps in the world.
The postage stamps of Ireland are issued by the postal operator of the independent Irish state. Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland when the world's first postage stamps were issued in 1840. These stamps, and all subsequent British issues, were used in Ireland until the new Irish Government assumed power in 1922. Beginning on 17 February 1922, existing British stamps were overprinted with Irish text to provide some definitives until separate Irish issues became available. Following the overprints, a regular series of definitive stamps was produced by the new Department of Posts and Telegraphs, using domestic designs. These definitives were issued on 6 December 1922; the first was a 2d stamp, depicting a map of Ireland. Since then new images, and additional values as needed, have produced nine definitive series of different designs.
Country definitives, formerly known as regional postage stamps of Great Britain, are the postage stamps issued for regions of the United Kingdom, reflecting the regional identity of the various countries and islands of the British isles.
The United Kingdom, known in philatelic circles as Great Britain, released many commemorative stamps in the 1980s.
Commemorative stamps, postage stamps issued to honour or commemorate a place, event or person, have been released by the United Kingdom since 1924. Several sets were released during the decade of the 1990s.
The postal history of Malta began in the early modern period, when pre-adhesive mail was delivered to foreign destinations by privately owned ships for a fee. The earliest known letter from Malta, sent during the rule of the Order of St John, is dated 1532. The first formal postal service on the islands was established by the Order in 1708, with the post office being located at the Casa del Commun Tesoro in Valletta. The first postal markings on mail appeared later on in the 18th century.
The Wildings were a series of definitive postage and revenue stamps featuring the Dorothy Wilding photographic portrait of Queen Elizabeth II that were in use between 1952 and 1971. The Wildings were the first and only British stamps to feature graphite lines on the back, and the first to feature phosphor bands on the face – both aids to automation. The stamps were also the first British pictorial high value stamps and the first to include regional emblems.
Mauritius, a small island in the southwest Indian Ocean, is important to the world of philately for a number of reasons. Its first two postage stamps issued in 1847, called the "Post Office" stamps, are of legendary rarity and value. They were the first stamps issued in any part of the British Empire outside of Great Britain. The unique cover bearing both “Post Office” stamps has been called "la pièce de résistance de toute la philatélie" or "the greatest item in all philately". The cover was sold at auction, in Zurich, on 3 November 1993, for 5.75 million Swiss francs, the equivalent of about $4 million – the highest price ever paid for a single philatelic item up to that time. In addition, Mauritius is well known for the subsequent locally produced issues known as "primitives," also prized by collectors.
This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Gibraltar.
Hamilton, Patrick. British Stamps: A description of the postage stamps of the United Kingdom. London: Peter Davies, 1948 338p. (Supplement in 1954; 75p.)
Lowe, Robson. British Postage Stamps of the 19th Century. London: National Postal Museum, 1st ed. 1968, 2nd ed. 1979.
Lowe, Robson. The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps: Vol. 1, Great Britain and the Empire in Europe. London: Robson Lowe, 1952 456p.
Mackay, James. British Stamps. London: Longman, 1985 ISBN0-582-40620-X, 247p.
Mackay, James A. Under the Gum – Background to British Stamps 1840–1940. Limassol: James Bendon, 1997 ISBN9963-579-76-0, 536p.
Oliver, Sidney and F. Hugh Vallancey. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain, 1840–1922. London: "Stamp Collecting", 1923, 563p.
Rose, Stuart. Royal Mail Stamps: A Survey of British Stamp Design. Oxford: Phaidon, 1980 ISBN0-7148-2072-5, 128p.
Todd, T. A History of British Postage Stamps. London: Duckworth, 1949, 274p.
Wijman, J.J. Postage Stamps of Great Britain and their history. Nuenen: Jeeboer Press, 1986 ISBN9071622010, 396p.
Williams, L.N. & M. Commemorative Postage Stamps of Great Britain. London: Arco, 1967, 206p.
Queen Victoria and King Edward VII
Beaumont, K.M. and John Easton. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain. Part 3, The embossed issues; The surface-printed issues of Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1964, 344p.
Seymour, J.B. and Clive Gardiner-Hill. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain: Part 1, Introduction to the line-engraved issues: the imperforate line-engraved issues, 1840–1853. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1967, 336p.
Wiggins, W.R.D. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain: Part 2, The Perforated Line-Engraved Issues. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1962, 220p.
King George V
Beaumont, K.M. and J.B.M. Stanton. The Postage Stamps of Great Britain. Part 4, The Issues of King George V. London: Royal Philatelic Society, 1957, 248p.
Muir, Douglas N. George V and The G.P.O.: Stamps, Conflict & Creativity. London: British Postal Museum & Archive, 2010 ISBN978-0-9553569-2-6, 275p.
Phillips, Stanley. The Stamps of Great Britain, 1911–21. London: Stanley Gibbons, 1921, 105p.
King Edward VIII
Kirk, A.J. King Edward VIII: a study of the stamps of the reign of King Edward VIII. Leigh-on-Sea: G.B. Philatelic Publications Ltd for the Great Britain Philatelic Society, 1974 ISBN0-9015121-1-7, 31p.
King George VI
Worsfold, Peter. Great Britain King George VI Low Value Definitive Stamps: An illustrated study of the development of their design. London: GBPS, 2001 ISBN0-9076301-7-0, 40p.
Queen Elizabeth II
Potter, David. British Elizabethan Stamps: The Story of the Postage Stamps of the United Kingdom, Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man, from 1952 to 1970. London: Batsford, 1971 ISBN0-71340-381-0, 190p.
Postage dues
Furfie, Michael. British Postage Due Mail, 1914 – 1971: a study of uses of the pre-decimal postage due stamps. Ashford: The Author, 1993 ISBN0-9522208-0-6, 74p.
Postmarks
Alcock, R.C. and F.C. Holland. British Postmarks: A Short History and Guide. Cheltenham: R. C. Alcock, 1960, 299p.
Huggins, Alan. British Postal Stationery. London: Great Britain Philatelic Society, 1971 188p.
Huggins, Alan and Colin Baker. Collect British Postal Stationery: A Simplified Listing of British Postal Stationery 1840 to 2007. GB Philatelic Publications, 2007 ISBN978-0-907630-22-7, 151p.
Postal history
Campbell-Smith, Duncan. Masters of the Post: The Authorized History of the Royal Mail. London: Penguin, 2012 ISBN978-0-2-4195766-0, 849p.
John Bartholomew and Son. Postal History Map of Britain: an illustrated map in full colour with a border of postage stamps. Edinburgh: John Bartholomew & Son, 1970?
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
