Potassium-ion battery

Last updated

A potassium-ion battery or K-ion battery (abbreviated as KIB) is a type of battery and analogue to lithium-ion batteries, using potassium ions for charge transfer instead of lithium ions.

Contents

It was invented by the Iranian/American chemist Ali Eftekhari (President of the American Nano Society) in 2004. [1]

History

The prototype device used a potassium anode and a Prussian blue compound as the cathode material [1] for its high electrochemical stability. [2] The prototype was successfully used for more than 500 cycles. A recent review showed currently that several pragmatic materials have been successfully used as the anode and cathode for the new generations of potassium-ion batteries. [3] For example, the conventional anode material graphite has been shown that it can be used as an anode in a potassium-ion battery. [4]

In 2024, Group1, created Kristonite for the cathode.

Materials

After the invention of potassium-ion battery with the prototype device, researchers have increasingly been focusing on enhancing the specific capacity and cycling performance with the application of new materials to electrodes (anode and cathode) and electrolyte.

A general picture of the material used for potassium-ion battery can be found as follows:

Cathodes

Besides the original Prussian blue cathode and its analogs, researches on cathode part of potassium ion battery focus on engineering.

Kristonite is a 4V cathode material — in the class of potassium prussian white (KPW) materials.

Another nanostructure and solid ionics appeared. A series of potassium transition metal oxide such as K0.3MnO2, K0.55CoO2 have been demonstrated as cathode material with a layered structure. [5] Polyanionic compounds with inductive defects could provide the highest working voltage among other types of cathode for potassium-ion batteries. During the electrochemical cycling process, its crystal structure will be distorted to created more induced defects upon the insertion of potassium ion. Recham et al first demonstrated that fluorosulfates have a reversible intercalation mechanism with K, Na and Li, since then, other polyanionic compound such as K3V2(PO4)3, KVPO4F have been studied, while still limited to the complex synthesis process. [6] [7] Worth noting is an orthodox approach of using organic compound as cathode for potassium-ion battery, such as PTCDA, a red pigment which can bond with 11 potassium ion within single molecule. [8] Classic alloying anodes such as Si, Sb and Sn that can form alloy with lithium ion during cycling process are also applicable for potassium-ion battery. Among them Sb is the most promising candidate due to its low cost and the theoretical capacity up to 660 mAh g−1. [9] Other organic compounds are also being developed to achieve strong mechanical strength as well as maintaining decent performance. [10]

Anodes

Same as the case of lithium-ion battery, graphite could also accommodate the intercalation of potassium within electrochemical process. [11] Whereas with different kinetics, graphite anodes suffer from low capacity retention during cycling within potassium-ion batteries. Thus, the approach of structure engineering of graphite anode is needed to achieve stable performance. Other types of carbonaceous materials besides graphite have been employed as anode material for potassium-ion battery, such as expanded graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers and also nitrogen or phosphorus-doped carbon materials. [12] Conversion anodes which can form compound with potassium ion with boosted storage capacity and reversibility have also been studied to fit for potassium-ion battery. To buffer the volume change of conversion anode, a carbon material matrix is always applied such as MoS2@rGO, Sb2S3-SNG, SnS2-rGO and so on. [13]

Electrolytes

Due to the chemical activity higher than lithium, electrolytes for potassium ion battery requires more delicate engineering to address safety concerns. Commercial ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) or other traditional ether/ester liquid electrolyte showed poor cycling performance and fast capacity degradation due to the Lewis acidity of potassium, also the highly flammable feature of it has prevented further application. Ionic liquid electrolyte offers new way to expand electrochemical window of potassium ion battery with much negative redox voltage and it's especially stable with graphite anode. [14] Recently, solid polymer electrolyte for all-solid-state potassium-ion battery have attracted much attention due to its flexibility and enhanced safety, Feng et al proposed a poly (propylene carbonate)-KFSI solid polymer electrolyte with the frame work of cellulose non-woven membrane, with boosted ionic conductivity of 1.3610−5 S cm−1. [15] Research on electrolyte for potassium-ion battery is focusing on achieving fast ion diffusion kinetics, stable SEI formation as well as enhanced safety.

Advantages

Along with the sodium ion, potassium-ion is the prime chemistry replacement candidate for lithium-ion batteries. [16] The potassium-ion has certain advantages over similar lithium-ion (e.g., lithium-ion batteries): the cell design is simple and both the material and the fabrication procedures are cheaper. The key advantage is the abundance and low cost of potassium in comparison with lithium, which makes potassium batteries a promising candidate for large scale batteries such as household energy storage and electric vehicles. [17] Another advantage of a potassium-ion battery over a lithium-ion battery is potentially faster charging. [18]

The prototype employed a KBF4 electrolyte, though almost all common electrolyte salts can be used. In addition, ionic liquids have also recently been reported as stable electrolytes with a wide electrochemical window. [19] [20] The chemical diffusion coefficient of K+ in the cell is higher than that of Li+ in lithium batteries, due to a smaller Stokes radius of solvated K+. Since the electrochemical potential of K+ is identical to that of Li+, the cell potential is similar to that of lithium-ion. Potassium batteries can accept a wide range of cathode materials which can offer rechargeability lower cost. One noticeable advantage is the availability of potassium graphite, which is used as an anode material in some lithium-ion batteries. Its stable structure guarantees a reversible intercalation/de-intercalation of potassium ions under charge/discharge.

Applications

In 2005, a potassium battery that uses molten electrolyte of KPF6 was patented. [21] [22] In 2007, Chinese company Starsway Electronics marketed the first potassium battery-powered portable media player as a high-energy device. [23]

Potassium batteries have been proposed for large-scale energy storage given its exceptional cyclability, but current prototypes only withstand a hundred charging cycles. [24] [25] [26]

As of 2019, five main issues are preventing widespread use of the K-ion battery technology: low diffusion of potassium ions through a solid electrode, as well as breakdown of the potassium after repeated cycles due to changes in volume, side reactions, growth of dendrites and poor heat dissipation. Researchers estimate that it could take as long as 20 years to figure all these problems out. [27] [28]

Biological potassium battery

The interesting and unique feature of the potassium-ion battery in comparison with other types of batteries is that life on Earth is based on biological potassium-ion batteries. K+ is the key charge carrier in plants. Circulation of K+ ions facilitates energy storage in plants by forming decentralized potassium batteries. [29] This is not only an iconic feature of potassium-ion batteries but also indicates how important it is to understand the role of K+ charge carriers to understand the living mechanism of plants.

Other potassium batteries

Researchers demonstrated a potassium-air battery (K-O2) with low overpotential. Its charge/discharge potential gap of about 50 mV is the lowest reported value in metal−air batteries. This provides a round-trip energy efficiency of >95%. In comparison, lithium–air batteries (Li-O2) have a much higher overpotential of 1–1.5 V, which results in 60% round-trip efficiency. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrode</span> Electrical conductor used to make contact with nonmetallic parts of a circuit

An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit. Electrodes are essential parts of batteries that can consist of a variety of materials (chemicals) depending on the type of battery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion battery</span> Rechargeable battery type

A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.

The electrochemical window (EW) of a substance is the electrode electric potential range between which the substance is neither oxidized nor reduced. The EW is one of the most important characteristics to be identified for solvents and electrolytes used in electrochemical applications. The EW is a term that is commonly used to indicate the potential range and the potential difference. It is calculated by subtracting the reduction potential from the oxidation potential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanobatteries</span> Type of battery

Nanobatteries are fabricated batteries employing technology at the nanoscale, particles that measure less than 100 nanometers or 10−7 meters. These batteries may be nano in size or may use nanotechnology in a macro scale battery. Nanoscale batteries can be combined to function as a macrobattery such as within a nanopore battery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion capacitor</span> Hybrid type of capacitor

A lithium-ion capacitor is a hybrid type of capacitor classified as a type of supercapacitor. It is called a hybrid because the anode is the same as those used in lithium-ion batteries and the cathode is the same as those used in supercapacitors. Activated carbon is typically used as the cathode. The anode of the LIC consists of carbon material which is often pre-doped with lithium ions. This pre-doping process lowers the potential of the anode and allows a relatively high output voltage compared to other supercapacitors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium–sulfur battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

The lithium–sulfur battery is a type of rechargeable battery. It is notable for its high specific energy. The low atomic weight of lithium and moderate atomic weight of sulfur means that Li–S batteries are relatively light. They were used on the longest and highest-altitude unmanned solar-powered aeroplane flight by Zephyr 6 in August 2008.

Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries are attempts to employ nanotechnology to improve the design of lithium-ion batteries. Research in lithium-ion batteries focuses on improving energy density, power density, safety, durability and cost.

The lithium–air battery (Li–air) is a metal–air electrochemical cell or battery chemistry that uses oxidation of lithium at the anode and reduction of oxygen at the cathode to induce a current flow.

A metal–air electrochemical cell is an electrochemical cell that uses an anode made from pure metal and an external cathode of ambient air, typically with an aqueous or aprotic electrolyte.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium-ion battery</span> Type of rechargeable battery

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of rechargeable batteries, which use sodium ions (Na+) as their charge carriers. In some cases, its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Sodium belongs to the same group in the periodic table as lithium and thus has similar chemical properties. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs.

Aluminium-ion batteries are a class of rechargeable battery in which aluminium ions serve as charge carriers. Aluminium can exchange three electrons per ion. This means that insertion of one Al3+ is equivalent to three Li+ ions. Thus, since the ionic radii of Al3+ (0.54 Å) and Li+ (0.76 Å) are similar, significantly higher numbers of electrons and Al3+ ions can be accepted by cathodes with little damage. Al has 50 times (23.5 megawatt-hours m-3) the energy density of Li and is even higher than coal.

Research in lithium-ion batteries has produced many proposed refinements of lithium-ion batteries. Areas of research interest have focused on improving energy density, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and reducing cost.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASICON</span> Class of solid materials

NASICON is an acronym for sodium (Na) super ionic conductor, which usually refers to a family of solids with the chemical formula Na1+xZr2SixP3−xO12, 0 < x < 3. In a broader sense, it is also used for similar compounds where Na, Zr and/or Si are replaced by isovalent elements. NASICON compounds have high ionic conductivities, on the order of 10−3 S/cm, which rival those of liquid electrolytes. They are caused by hopping of Na ions among interstitial sites of the NASICON crystal lattice.

Lithium–silicon batteries are lithium-ion battery that employ a silicon-based anode and lithium ions as the charge carriers. Silicon based materials generally have a much larger specific capacity, for example 3600 mAh/g for pristine silicon, relative to the standard anode material graphite, which is limited to a maximum theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g for the fully lithiated state LiC6.

Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as charge carriers and possibly in the anode in electrochemical cells. Both non-rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries.

Calcium (ion) batteries are energy storage and delivery technologies (i.e., electro–chemical energy storage) that employ calcium ions (cations), Ca2+, as the active charge carrier. Calcium (ion) batteries remain an active area of research, with studies and work persisting in the discovery and development of electrodes and electrolytes that enable stable, long-term battery operation. Calcium batteries are rapidly emerging as a recognized alternative to Li-ion technology due to their similar performance, significantly greater abundance, and lower cost.

The piezoelectrochemical transducer effect (PECT) is a coupling between the electrochemical potential and the mechanical strain in ion-insertion-based electrode materials. It is similar to the piezoelectric effect – with both exhibiting a voltage-strain coupling - although the PECT effect relies on movement of ions within a material microstructure, rather than charge accumulation from the polarization of electric dipole moments.

A solid-state silicon battery or silicon-anode all-solid-state battery is a type of rechargeable lithium-ion battery consisting of a solid electrolyte, solid cathode, and silicon-based solid anode.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the lithium-ion battery</span> Overview of the events of the development of lithium-ion battery

This is a history of the lithium-ion battery.

Fluoride batteries are rechargeable battery technology based on the shuttle of fluoride, the anion of fluorine, as ionic charge carriers.

References

  1. 1 2 Eftekhari, A (2004). "Potassium secondary cell based on Prussian blue cathode". Journal of Power Sources . 126 (1): 221–228. Bibcode:2004JPS...126..221E. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.08.007.
  2. Itaya, K; Ataka, T; Toshima, S (1982). "Spectroelectrochemistry and electrochemical preparation method of Prussian Blue modified electrodes". Journal of the American Chemical Society . 104 (18): 4767. doi:10.1021/ja00382a006.
  3. Eftekhari, A; Jian, Z; Ji, X (2017). "Potassium Secondary Batteries". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces . 9 (5): 4404–4419. doi:10.1021/acsami.6b07989. PMID   27714999.
  4. Luo, W; Wan, J; Ozdemir, B (2015). "Potassium Ion Batteries with Graphitic Materials". Nano Letters . 15 (11): 7671–7. Bibcode:2015NanoL..15.7671L. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03667. PMID   26509225.
  5. Pramudita, James C.; Sehrawat, Divya; Goonetilleke, Damian; Sharma, Neeraj (2017). "An Initial Review of the Status of Electrode Materials for Potassium-Ion Batteries". Advanced Energy Materials. 7 (24): 1602911. Bibcode:2017AdEnM...702911P. doi:10.1002/aenm.201602911. ISSN   1614-6840.
  6. Recham, Nadir; Rousse, Gwenaëlle; Sougrati, Moulay T.; Chotard, Jean-Noël; Frayret, Christine; Mariyappan, Sathiya; Melot, Brent C.; Jumas, Jean-Claude; Tarascon, Jean-Marie (2012-11-27). "Preparation and Characterization of a Stable FeSO4F-Based Framework for Alkali Ion Insertion Electrodes". Chemistry of Materials. 24 (22): 4363–4370. doi:10.1021/cm302428w. ISSN   0897-4756.
  7. Fedotov, S (2016). "AVPO4F (A = Li, K): A 4 V Cathode Material for High-Power Rechargeable Batteries". Chemistry of Materials. 28 (2): 411–415. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b04065 . hdl: 10067/1315830151162165141 .
  8. Chen, Yanan; Luo, Wei; Carter, Marcus; Zhou, Lihui; Dai, Jiaqi; Fu, Kun; Lacey, Steven; Li, Tian; Wan, Jiayu; Han, Xiaogang; Bao, Yanping (2015-11-01). "Organic electrode for non-aqueous potassium-ion batteries". Nano Energy. 18: 205–211. Bibcode:2015NEne...18..205C. doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.10.015. ISSN   2211-2855.
  9. An, Yongling; Tian, Yuan; Ci, Lijie; Xiong, Shenglin; Feng, Jinkui; Qian, Yitai (2018-12-26). "Micron-Sized Nanoporous Antimony with Tunable Porosity for High-Performance Potassium-Ion Batteries". ACS Nano. 12 (12): 12932–12940. doi:10.1021/acsnano.8b08740. ISSN   1936-0851. PMID   30481455. S2CID   53747530.
  10. Chen, Xiudong; Zhang, Hang; Ci, Chenggang; Sun, Weiwei; Wang, Yong (2019-03-26). "Few-Layered Boronic Ester Based Covalent Organic Frameworks/Carbon Nanotube Composites for High-Performance K-Organic Batteries". ACS Nano. 13 (3): 3600–3607. doi:10.1021/acsnano.9b00165. ISSN   1936-0851. PMID   30807104. S2CID   73488846.
  11. Jian, Zelang; Luo, Wei; Ji, Xiulei (2015-09-16). "Carbon Electrodes for K-Ion Batteries". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 137 (36): 11566–11569. doi:10.1021/jacs.5b06809. ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   26333059.
  12. Hwang, Jang-Yeon; Myung, Seung-Taek; Sun, Yang-Kook (2018). "Recent Progress in Rechargeable Potassium Batteries". Advanced Functional Materials. 28 (43): 1802938. doi:10.1002/adfm.201802938. ISSN   1616-3028. S2CID   106292273.
  13. Eftekhari, Ali; Jian, Zelang; Ji, Xiulei (2017-02-08). "Potassium Secondary Batteries". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 9 (5): 4404–4419. doi:10.1021/acsami.6b07989. ISSN   1944-8244. PMID   27714999.
  14. Beltrop, K.; Beuker, S.; Heckmann, A.; Winter, M.; Placke, T. (2017). "Alternative electrochemical energy storage: potassium-based dual-graphite batteries". Energy & Environmental Science. 10 (10): 2090–2094. doi:10.1039/C7EE01535F. ISSN   1754-5692.
  15. Fei, Huifang; Liu, Yining; An, Yongling; Xu, Xiaoyan; Zeng, Guifang; Tian, Yuan; Ci, Lijie; Xi, Baojuan; Xiong, Shenglin; Feng, Jinkui (2018-09-30). "Stable all-solid-state potassium battery operating at room temperature with a composite polymer electrolyte and a sustainable organic cathode". Journal of Power Sources. 399: 294–298. Bibcode:2018JPS...399..294F. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.07.124. ISSN   0378-7753. S2CID   105472842.
  16. "New battery concept: potassium instead of lithium". 8 October 2015.
  17. "High-Capacity Aqueous Potassium-Ion Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage". 2 December 2016.
  18. "Potassium Ions Charge Li Batteries Faster". 20 January 2017.
  19. Yamamoto, Takayuki; Matsumoto, Kazuhiko; Hagiwara, Rika; Nohira, Toshiyuki (7 August 2017). "Physicochemical and Electrochemical Properties of K[N(SO2F)2]–[N-Methyl-N-propylpyrrolidinium][N(SO2F)2] Ionic Liquids for Potassium-Ion Batteries". The Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 121 (34): 18450–18458. doi:10.1021/acs.jpcc.7b06523. hdl: 2433/261771 .
  20. Masese, Titus; Yoshii, Kazuki; Yamaguchi, Yoichi; Okumura, Toyoki; Huang, Zhen-Dong; Kato, Minami; Kubota, Keigo; Furutani, Junya; Orikasa, Yuki; Senoh, Hiroshi; Sakaebe, Hikari; Shikano, Masahiro (20 September 2018). "Rechargeable potassium-ion batteries with honeycomb-layered tellurates as high voltage cathodes and fast potassium-ion conductors". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3823. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.3823M. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06343-6. PMC   6147795 . PMID   30237549.
  21. US 20090263717 Ramasubramanian, M; Spotnitz, RM
  22. US 2005017219 Li, W; Kohoma, K; Armand, M; Perron, G
  23. Melanson, D (24 October 2007). "China's Starsway touts potassium battery-powered PMP". Engadget . Retrieved 2011-09-16.
  24. "New Battery Technology Could Provide Large-Scale Energy Storage for the Grid". 25 November 2011.
  25. "Battery electrode's 40,000 charge cycles look promising for grid storage". 22 November 2011.
  26. "Full Page Reload". IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. Retrieved 2020-07-28.
  27. Yirka, Bob; Phys.org. "Researchers outline the current state of potassium-ion battery technology". phys.org. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
  28. Zhang, Wenchao; Liu, Yajie; Guo, Zaiping (2019-05-03). "Approaching high-performance potassium-ion batteries via advanced design strategies and engineering". Science Advances. 5 (5): eaav7412. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.7412Z. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav7412. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6510555 . PMID   31093528.
  29. Gajdanowicz, Pawel (2010). "Potassium (K+) gradients serve as a mobile energy source in plant vascular tissues". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 108 (2): 864–869. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108..864G. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1009777108 . PMC   3021027 . PMID   21187374.
  30. Ren, Xiaodi; Wu, Yiying (2013). "A Low-Overpotential Potassium−Oxygen Battery Based on Potassium Superoxide". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 135 (8): 2923–2926. doi:10.1021/ja312059q. PMID   23402300.