A valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) battery, commonly known as a sealed lead-acid (SLA) battery,[1] is a type of lead-acid battery characterized by a limited amount of electrolyte ("starved" electrolyte) absorbed in a plate separator or formed into a gel; proportioning of the negative and positive plates so that oxygen recombination is facilitated within the cell; and the presence of a relief valve that retains the battery contents independent of the position of the cells.[2]
There are two primary types of VRLA batteries, absorbent glass mat (AGM) and gel cell (gel battery).[3] Gel cells add silica dust to the electrolyte, forming a thick putty-like gel. AGM (absorbent glass mat) batteries feature fiberglass mesh between the battery plates which serves to contain the electrolyte and separate the plates. Both types of VRLA batteries offer advantages and disadvantages compared to flooded vented lead-acid (VLA) batteries or each other.[4]
Due to their construction, the gel cell and AGM types of VRLA can be mounted in any orientation, and do not require constant maintenance. The term "maintenance free" is a misnomer as VRLA batteries still require cleaning and regular functional testing. They are widely used in large portable electrical devices, off-grid power systems and similar roles, where large amounts of storage are needed at a lower cost than other low-maintenance technologies like lithium ion.
History
The first lead-acid gel battery was invented by Elektrotechnische Fabrik Sonneberg in 1934.[5] The modern gel or VRLA battery was invented by Otto Jache of Sonnenschein in 1957.[6][7] The first AGM cell was the Cyclon, patented by Gates Rubber Corporation in 1972 and now produced by EnerSys.[8] The cyclon is a spiral wound cell with thin lead foil electrodes. A number of manufacturers seized on the technology to implement it in cells with conventional flat plates. In the mid 1980s, two UK companies, Chloride and Tungstone, simultaneously introduced ten year life AGM batteries in capacities up to 400Ah, stimulated by a British Telecom specification for batteries for support of new digital exchanges. In the same period, Gates acquired another UK company, Varley, specialising in aircraft and military batteries. Varley adapted the Cyclon lead foil technology to produce flat plate batteries with exceptional high rate output. These gained approval for a variety of aircraft including the BAE 125 and 146 business jets, the Harrier and its derivative the AV8B, and some F16 variants as the first alternatives to then standard nickel–cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries.[6]
Lead-acid cells consist of two plates of lead, which serve as electrodes, suspended in an electrolyte consisting of diluted sulfuric acid. VRLA cells have the same chemistry, except the electrolyte is immobilized. In AGM this is accomplished with a fiberglass mat; in gel batteries or "gel cells", the electrolyte is in the form of a paste like gel created by adding silica and other gelling agents to the electrolyte.[9]
When a cell discharges, the lead and diluted acid undergo a chemical reaction that produces lead sulfate and water. When a cell is subsequently charged, the lead sulfate and water are turned back into lead and acid. In all lead-acid battery designs, charging current must be adjusted to match the ability of the battery to absorb the energy. If the charging current is too great, electrolysis will occur, decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen, in addition to the intended conversion of lead sulfate and water into lead dioxide, lead, and sulfuric acid (the reverse of the discharge process). If these gases are allowed to escape, as in a conventional flooded cell, the battery will need to have water (or electrolyte) added from time to time. In contrast, VRLA batteries retain generated gases within the battery as long as the pressure remains within safe levels. Under normal operating conditions the gases can then recombine within the battery itself, sometimes with the help of a catalyst, and no additional electrolyte is needed.[10][11] However, if the pressure exceeds safety limits, safety valves open to allow the excess gases to escape, and in doing so regulate the pressure back to safe levels (hence "valve regulated" in "VRLA").[12]
Construction
Each cell in a VRLA battery has a pressure relief valve which will activate when the battery starts building pressure of hydrogen gas, generally a result of being recharged.[12]
The cell covers typically have gas diffusers built into them that allow safe dispersal of any excess hydrogen that may be formed during overcharge. They are not permanently sealed, but are designated to be maintenance free. They can be oriented in any manner, unlike normal lead-acid batteries, which must be kept upright to avoid acid spills and to keep the plates' orientation vertical. Cells may be operated with the plates horizontal (pancake style), which may improve cycle life.[13]
Absorbent glass mat (AGM)
AGM batteries differ from flooded lead-acid batteries in that the electrolyte is held in the glass mats, as opposed to freely flooding the plates. Very thin glass fibers are woven into a mat to increase the surface area enough to hold a sufficient amount of electrolyte on the cells for their lifetime. The fibers that compose the fine glass mat do not absorb and are not affected by the acidic electrolyte. These mats are wrung out 2–5% after being soaked in acids just prior to finish manufacturing.
The plates in an AGM battery may be of any shape. Some are flat, whereas others are bent or rolled. Both deep cycle and starting type of AGM batteries, are built into a rectangular case according to Battery Council International (BCI) battery code specifications.
AGM batteries are more resistant to self discharging than conventional batteries within a wide range of temperatures.[14]
As with lead-acid batteries, in order to maximize the life of an AGM battery, it is important to follow the manufacturer's charging specifications. The use of a voltage regulated charger is recommended.[15] There is a direct correlation between the depth of discharge (DOD) and the cycle life of the battery,[16] with differences between 500 and 1300 cycles depending on DOD.
Broken gel battery with white gobbets of the gelated electrolyte on the plates
Originally a kind of gel battery was produced in the early 1930s for portable valve (tube) radio LT supply (2, 4 or 6V) by adding silica to the sulfuric acid.[17] By this time the glass case was being replaced by celluloid and later in 1930s other plastics. Earlier "wet" cells in glass jars used special valves to allow tilt from vertical to one horizontal direction in 1927 to 1931 or 1932.[18] The gel cells were less likely to leak when the portable set was handled roughly.
A modern gel battery is a VRLA battery with a gelatedelectrolyte; the sulfuric acid is mixed with fumed silica, which makes the resulting mass gel like and immobile. Unlike a flooded wet cell lead-acid battery, these batteries do not need to be kept upright. Gel batteries reduce the electrolyte evaporation, spillage (and subsequent corrosion problems) common to the wet cell battery, and boast greater resistance to shock and vibration. Chemically they are almost the same as wet (non sealed) batteries except that the antimony in the lead plates is replaced by calcium, and gas recombination can take place.
Applications
Many modern motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) on the market use AGM batteries to reduce likelihood of acid spilling during cornering, vibration, or after accidents, and for packaging reasons. The lighter, smaller battery can be installed at an odd angle if needed for the design of the motorcycle. Due to the higher manufacturing costs compared with flooded lead-acid batteries, AGM batteries are currently used on luxury vehicles. As vehicles become heavier and equipped with more electronic devices such as navigation and stability control, AGM batteries are being employed to lower vehicle weight and provide better electrical reliability compared with flooded lead-acid batteries.
5 seriesBMWs from March 2007 incorporate AGM batteries in conjunction with devices for recovering brake energy using regenerative braking and computer control to ensure the alternator charges the battery when the car is decelerating. Vehicles used in auto racing may use AGM batteries due to their vibration resistance. AGM batteries are also commonly used in classic vehicles since they are much less likely to leak electrolyte, which could damage hard to replace body panels.
AGM batteries are routinely chosen for remote sensors such as ice monitoring stations in the Arctic. AGM batteries, due to their lack of free electrolyte, will not crack and leak in these cold environments.
VRLA batteries are used extensively in power wheelchairs and mobility scooters, as the extremely low gas and acid output makes them much safer for indoor use. VRLA batteries are also used in the uninterruptible power supply (UPS) as a backup when the electrical power goes off.
VRLA batteries are also the standard power source in sailplanes, due to their ability to withstand a variety of flight attitudes and a relatively large ambient temperature range with no adverse effects. However, charging regimes must be adapted with varying temperature.[19]
VRLA batteries are used in the US Nuclear Submarine fleet, due to their power density, elimination of gassing, reduced maintenance, and enhanced safety.[20]
AGM and gel-cell batteries are also used for recreational marine purposes, with AGM being more commonly available. AGM deep-cycle marine batteries are offered by a number of suppliers. They typically are favored for their low maintenance and spill-proof quality, although generally considered a less cost effective solution relative to traditional flooded cells.
In telecommunications applications, VRLA batteries that comply with criteria in Telcordia Technologies requirements document GR-4228, Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid (VRLA) Battery String Certification Levels Based on Requirements for Safety and Performance, are recommended for deployment in the Outside Plant (OSP) at locations such as Controlled Environmental Vaults (CEVs), Electronic Equipment Enclosures (EEEs), and huts, and in uncontrolled structures such as cabinets. Relative to VRLA in telecommunications, the use of VRLA Ohmic Measurement Type Equipment (OMTE) and OMTE-like measurement equipment is a fairly new process to evaluate telecommunications battery plants.[21] The proper use of ohmic test equipment allows battery testing without the need to remove batteries from service to perform costly and time-consuming discharge tests.
Comparison with flooded lead-acid cells
VRLA gel and AGM batteries offer several advantages compared with VRLA flooded lead-acid and conventional lead-acid batteries. The battery can be mounted in any position, since the valves only operate on over-pressure faults. Since the battery system is designed to be recombinant and eliminate the emission of gases on overcharge, room ventilation requirements are reduced, and no acid fume is emitted during normal operation. Flooded cell gas emissions are of little consequence in all but the smallest confined areas, and pose very little threat to a domestic user, so a wet cell battery designed for longevity gives lower costs per kWh. In a gel battery, the volume of free electrolyte that could be released on damage to the case or venting is very small. There is no need (or ability) to check the level of electrolyte or to top up water lost due to electrolysis, thus reducing inspection and maintenance requirements.[22] Wet-cell batteries can be maintained by a self-watering system or by topping up every three months. The requirement to add distilled water is normally caused by overcharging. A well-regulated system should not require top-up more often than every three months.
An underlying disadvantage with all lead-acid batteries is the requirement for a relatively long recharge cycle time arising from an inherent three-stage charging process: bulk charge, absorption charge, and (maintenance) float charge stages. All lead-acid batteries, irrespective of type, are quick to bulk charge to about 70% of capacity during which the battery will accept a large current input, determined at a voltage setpoint, within a few hours (with a charge source capable of supplying the design C-rate bulk stage current for a given Ah battery).
However, they then require a longer time spent in the current-tapering off intermediate absorption charge stage after the initial bulk charge, when the LA battery charge acceptance rate gradually reduces, and the battery will not accept a higher C-rate. When the absorption stage voltage setpoint is reached (and charge current has tapered off), the charger switches to a float voltage setpoint at a very low C-rate to maintain the battery's fully charged state indefinitely (the float stage offsets the battery's normal self-discharge over time).
If the charger fails to supply a sufficient absorption stage charge duration and C-rate (it 'plateaus' or times out, a common fault of cheap solar chargers), and a suitable float charge profile, the battery's capacity and longevity will be dramatically reduced.
To ensure maximum life, a lead-acid battery should be fully recharged as soon after a discharge cycle as possible to prevent sulfation, and kept at a full charge level by a float source when stored or idle (or stored dry new from the factory, an uncommon practice today).
When working a discharge cycle, a LA battery should be kept at a DOD of less than 50%, ideally no more than 20-40% DOD; a true[23] LA deep-cycle battery can be taken to a lower DOD (even an occasional 80%), but these greater DOD cycles always impose a longevity price.
Lead-acid battery lifetime cycles will vary with the care given, with best care they may achieve 500 to 1000 cycles. With less careful use, a lifetime as few as 100 cycles might be expected (all dependent upon the use environment too).
Because of calcium added to its plates to reduce water loss, a sealed AGM or gel battery recharges more quickly than a flooded lead-acid battery of either VRLA or conventional design.[24][25] Compared to flooded batteries, VRLA batteries are more vulnerable to thermal runaway during abusive charging. The electrolyte cannot be tested by hydrometer to diagnose improper charging that can reduce battery life.[25]
AGM automobile batteries are typically about twice the price of flooded-cell batteries in a given BCI size group; gel batteries as much as five times the price.
AGM and gel VRLA batteries:
Have shorter recharge time than flooded lead-acid batteries.[26]
Cannot tolerate overcharging: overcharging leads to premature failure.[26]
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or uninterruptible power source is a type of continual power system that provides automated backup electric power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from a traditional auxiliary/emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions by switching to energy stored in battery packs, supercapacitors or flywheels. The on-battery run-times of most UPSs are relatively short but sufficient to "buy time" for initiating a standby power source or properly shutting down the protected equipment. Almost all UPSs also contain integrated surge protection to shield the output appliances from voltage spikes.
A nickel–metal hydride battery is a type of rechargeable battery. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is similar to that of the nickel-cadmium cell (NiCd), with both using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH). However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium. NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of NiCd batteries of the same size, with significantly higher energy density, although only about half that of lithium-ion batteries.
The nickel–cadmium battery is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation Ni–Cd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd): the abbreviation NiCad is a registered trademark of SAFT Corporation, although this brand name is commonly used to describe all Ni–Cd batteries.
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or secondary cell, is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, zinc–air, nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium-ion polymer.
The lead-acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever created. Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead-acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents. These features, along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by starter motors. Lead-acid batteries suffer from relatively short cycle lifespan and overall lifespan, as well as long charging times.
A lithium polymer battery, or more correctly, lithium-ion polymer battery, is a rechargeable battery of lithium-ion technology using a polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte. Highly conductive semisolid (gel) polymers form this electrolyte. These batteries provide higher specific energy than other lithium battery types. They are used in applications where weight is critical, such as mobile devices, radio-controlled aircraft, and some electric vehicles.
Memory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge. It describes the situation in which nickel-cadmium batteries gradually lose their maximum energy capacity if they are repeatedly recharged after being only partially discharged. The battery appears to "remember" the smaller capacity.
An automotive battery, or car battery, is a rechargeable battery that is used to start a motor vehicle. Its main purpose is to provide an electric current to the electric-powered starting motor, which in turn starts the chemically-powered internal combustion engine that actually propels the vehicle. Once the engine is running, power for the car's electrical systems is still supplied by the battery, with the alternator charging the battery as demands increase or decrease.
The nickel–iron battery is a rechargeable battery having nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive plates and iron negative plates, with an electrolyte of potassium hydroxide. The active materials are held in nickel-plated steel tubes or perforated pockets. It is a very robust battery which is tolerant of abuse, and can have very long life even if so treated. It is often used in backup situations where it can be continuously charged and can last for more than 20 years. Due to its low specific energy, poor charge retention, and high cost of manufacture, other types of rechargeable batteries have displaced the nickel–iron battery in most applications.
A dry cell is a type of electric battery, commonly used for portable electrical devices. Unlike wet cell batteries, which have a liquid electrolyte, dry cells use an electrolyte in the form of a paste, and are thus less susceptible to leakage.
A zinc–air battery is a metal–air electrochemical cell powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. During discharge, a mass of zinc particles forms a porous anode, which is saturated with an electrolyte. Oxygen from the air reacts at the cathode and forms hydroxyl ions which migrate into the zinc paste and form zincate, releasing electrons to travel to the cathode. The zincate decays into zinc oxide and water returns to the electrolyte. The water and hydroxyl from the anode are recycled at the cathode, so the water is not consumed. The reactions produce a theoretical voltage of 1.65 Volts, but is reduced to 1.35–1.4 V in available cells.
Peukert's law, presented by the German scientist Wilhelm Peukert in 1897, expresses approximately the change in capacity of rechargeable lead–acid batteries at different rates of discharge. As the rate of discharge increases, the battery's available capacity decreases, approximately according to Peukert's law.
A battery charger, recharger, or simply charger, is a device that stores energy in an electric battery by running current through it. The charging protocol—how much voltage, current, for how long and what to do when charging is complete—depends on the size and type of the battery being charged. Some battery types have high tolerance for overcharging after the battery has been fully charged and can be recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type.
A rechargeable alkaline battery, also known as alkaline rechargeable or rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM), is a type of alkaline battery that is capable of recharging for repeated use. The formats include AAA, AA, C, D, and snap-on 9-volt batteries. Rechargeable alkaline batteries are manufactured fully charged and have the ability to hold their charge for years, longer than nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydride batteries, which self-discharge. Rechargeable alkaline batteries can have a high recharging efficiency and have less environmental impact than disposable cells.
A nickel–hydrogen battery (NiH2 or Ni–H2) is a rechargeable electrochemical power source based on nickel and hydrogen. It differs from a nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery by the use of hydrogen in gaseous form, stored in a pressurized cell at up to 1200 psi (82.7 bar) pressure. The nickel–hydrogen battery was patented in the United States on February 25, 1971 by Alexandr Ilich Kloss, Vyacheslav Mikhailovic Sergeev and Boris Ioselevich Tsenter from the Soviet Union.
A deep-cycle battery is a battery designed to be regularly deeply discharged using most of its capacity. The term is traditionally mainly used for lead–acid batteries in the same form factor as automotive batteries; and contrasted with starter or 'cranking' automotive batteries designed to deliver only a small part of their capacity in a short, high-current burst for cranking the engine.
UltraBattery is a trademark of the lead-acid battery technology commercialized by Furukawa Battery Co. Ltd. UltraBattery has thin carbon layers on spongy lead active material for negative plates. The original idea that combines ultracapacitor technology with lead–acid battery technology in a single cell with a common electrolyte came from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO).
An electric battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.
A separator is a permeable membrane placed between a battery's anode and cathode. The main function of a separator is to keep the two electrodes apart to prevent electrical short circuits while also allowing the transport of ionic charge carriers that are needed to close the circuit during the passage of current in an electrochemical cell.
Kathryn Rice Bullock was a chemist, best known for her work in developing valve-regulated lead-acid batteries. Her theoretical and statistical modeling of the electrochemistry of batteries led to better understanding of processes such as corrosion and advances in battery design. Her work has applications for hybrid and electric cars, residential fuel cell systems and solar energy storage. Kathryn Bullock has published over 60 technical papers and holds at least 11 U.S. patents. She served as vice-president of the Electrochemical Society in 1992 and as president from 1995 to 1996. Bullock died on May 17, 2021, from Alzheimer's Disease.
References
↑ Eismin, Thomas K. (2013). Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (Sixthed.). McGraw Hill Professional. p.48. ISBN978-0071799157.
↑ Linden, David B.; Reddy, Thomas (2002). "24". Handbook of Batteries Third Edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-135978-8.
↑ Wagner, R (2004-03-09). "13.3 Gel batteries". In Moseley, Patrick T; etal. (eds.). Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid Batteries. Elsevier Science. p.446. ISBN9780444507464.
↑ Robert Nelson, "The Basic Chemistry of Gas Recombination in Lead–Acid Batteries", JOM 53 (1) (2001)
1 2 Ronald Dell, David Anthony James Rand, Robert Bailey, Jr., Understanding Batteries,Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001, ISBN0854046054 p. 101, pp.120-122
↑ GR-3169-CORE, Generic Requirements for Valve-Regulated Lead–Acid (VRLA) Battery Ohmic Measurement Type Equipment (OMTE).
↑ Fink, Donald G.; Beaty, H. Wayne (1978). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (Eleventhed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.11–116. ISBN0-07-020974-X.
↑ Barre, Harold (1997). Managing 12 Volts: How to Upgrade, Operate and Troubleshoot 12 Volt Electrical Systems. Summer Breeze Publishing. p.44. ISBN978-0-9647386-1-4.(stating sealed battery plates are hardened with calcium to reduce water loss which "raises the batteries' internal resistance and prevents rapid charging.")
Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries. Edited by Patrick T. Moseley, Jurgen Garche, C.D. Parker, D.A.J. Rand. p202
Vinal, G.W. (1955 Jan 01) Storage batteries. A general treatise on the physics and chemistry of secondary batteries and their engineering applications. Energy Citations Database (ECD): Document #7308501
U.S. patent 4,414,302 – Method of making a lead storage battery and lead storage battery made according to this method. Otto Jache's and Heinz Schroeder
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