Vanadium redox battery

Last updated

Vanadium redox battery
Specific energy 10–20  Wh/kg (36–72 J/g)
Energy density 15–25 Wh/L (54–65 kJ/L)
Energy efficiency75–90% [1] [2]
Time durability20–30 years
Cycle durability>12,000–14,000  cycles [3]
Nominal cell voltage1.15–1.55  V
Schematic design of a vanadium redox flow battery system Redox Flow Battery.jpg
Schematic design of a vanadium redox flow battery system
1 MW 4 MWh containerized vanadium flow battery owned by Avista Utilities and manufactured by UniEnergy Technologies 1 MW 4 MWh Turner Energy Storage Project in Pullman, WA.jpg
1 MW 4 MWh containerized vanadium flow battery owned by Avista Utilities and manufactured by UniEnergy Technologies
A vanadium redox flow battery located at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia Vanadium Redox flow battery.jpg
A vanadium redox flow battery located at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

The vanadium redox battery (VRB), also known as the vanadium flow battery (VFB) or vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), is a type of rechargeable flow battery. It employs vanadium ions as charge carriers. [5] The battery uses vanadium's ability to exist in a solution in four different oxidation states to make a battery with a single electroactive element instead of two. [6] For several reasons, including their relative bulkiness, vanadium batteries are typically used for grid energy storage, i.e., attached to power plants/electrical grids. [7]

Contents

Numerous companies and organizations are involved in funding and developing vanadium redox batteries.

History

Pissoort mentioned the possibility of VRFBs in the 1930s. [8] NASA researchers and Pellegri and Spaziante followed suit in the 1970s, [9] but neither was successful. Maria Skyllas-Kazacos presented the first successful demonstration of an All-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery employing dissolved vanadium in a solution of sulfuric acid in the 1980s. [10] [11] [12] Her design used sulfuric acid electrolytes, and was patented by the University of New South Wales in Australia in 1986. [2]

One of the important breakthroughs achieved by Skyllas-Kazacos and coworkers was the development of a number of processes to produce vanadium electrolytes of over 1.5 M concentration using the lower cost, but insoluble vanadium pentoxide as starting material. These processes involved chemical and electrochemical dissolution and were patented by the University of NSW in 1989. During the 1990s the UNSW group conducted extensive research on membrane selection, [13] [14] graphite felt activation, [15] [16] conducting plastic bipolar electrode fabrication, [17] electrolyte characterisation and optimisation as well as modelling and simulation. Several 1-5 kW VFB prototype batteries were assembled and field tested in a Solar House in Thailand and in an electric golf cart at UNSW. [18]

The UNSW All-Vanadium Redox Flow Battery patents and technology were licensed to Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation and Kashima-Kita Electric Power Corporation in the mid-1990s and subsequently acquired by Sumitomo Electric Industries where extensive field testing was conducted in a wide range of applications in the late 1990s and early 2000s. [19]

In order to extend the operating temperature range of the battery and prevent precipitation of vanadium in the electrolyte at temperatures above 40oC in the case of V(V), or below 10oC in case of the negative half-cell solution, Skyllas-Kazacos and coworkers tested hundreds of organic and inorganic additives as potential precipitation inhibitors. They discovered that inorganic phosphate and ammonium compounds were effective in inhibiting precipitation of 2 M vanadium solutions in both the negative and positive half-cell at temperatures of 5 and 45 °C respectively and ammonium phosphate was selected as the most effective stabilising agent. Ammonium and phosphate additives were used to prepare and test a 3 M vanadium electrolyte in a flow cell with excellent results. [19]

Number of patent families and non-patent publications about several types of flow battery chemistries by year. Patent families and journal articles about minor flow battery chemistries by year.png
Number of patent families and non-patent publications about several types of flow battery chemistries by year.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

VRFBs' main advantages over other types of battery: [21]

Disadvantages

VRFBs' main disadvantages compared to other types of battery: [21]

Materials

Schematic of vanadium redox flow battery. Redox bat 2.png
Schematic of vanadium redox flow battery.
Solutions of Vanadium sulfates in four different oxidation states of vanadium. VanadiumColors.png
Solutions of Vanadium sulfates in four different oxidation states of vanadium.
Different types of graphite flow fields are used in vanadium flow batteries. From left to right: rectangular channels, rectangular channels with flow distributor, interdigitated flow field, and serpentine flow field. Graphite flow fields for vanadium flow battery.png
Different types of graphite flow fields are used in vanadium flow batteries. From left to right: rectangular channels, rectangular channels with flow distributor, interdigitated flow field, and serpentine flow field.

Electrode

The electrodes in a VRB cell are carbon based. Several types of carbon electrode used in VRB cell has been report such as carbon felt, carbon paper, carbon cloth, and graphite felt. [25] [26] [27] Carbon-based materials have the advantages of low cost, low resistivity and good stability. Among them, carbon felt and graphite felt are preferred because of their enhanced three-dimensional network structures and higher specific surface areas, as well as good conductivity and chemical and electrochemical stability. [28] [29] The pristine carbon-based electrode exhibits hydrophobicity and limited catalytic activity when interacting with vanadium species. To enhance its catalytic performance and wettability, several approaches have been employed, including thermal treatment, acid treatment, electrochemical modification, and the incorporation of catalysts. [27] [30] Carbon felt is typically produced by pyrolyzing polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or rayon fibers at approximately 1500 °C and 1400 °C, respectively. Graphite felt, on the other hand, undergoes pyrolysis at a higher temperature of about 2400 °C. To thermally activate the felt electrodes, the material is heated to 400 °C in an air or oxygen-containing atmosphere. This process significantly increases the surface area of the felt, enhancing it by a factor of 10. [31] The activity towards vanadium species are attribute to the increase in oxygen functional groups such as carbonyl group (C=O) and carboxyl group (C-O) after thermal treatment in air. [32] There is currently no consensus regarding the specific functional groups and reaction mechanisms that dictate the interaction of vanadium species on the surface of the electrode. It has been proposed that the V(II)/V(III) reaction follows an inner-sphere mechanism, while the V(IV)/V(V) reaction tends to proceed through an outer-sphere mechanism. [30]

Electrolyte

Both electrolytes are vanadium-based. The electrolyte in the positive half-cells contains VO2+ and VO2+ ions, while the electrolyte in the negative half-cells consists of V3+ and V2+ ions. The electrolytes can be prepared by several processes, including electrolytically dissolving vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) in sulfuric acid (H2SO4). [33] The solution is strongly acidic in use.

Membrane

The most common membrane material is perfluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA or Nafion). However, vanadium ions can penetrate a PFSA membrane, a phenomenon known as crossing-over, reducing the energy capacity of the battery. [34] [35] A 2021 study found that penetration is reduced with hybrid sheets made by growing tungsten trioxide nanoparticles on the surface of single-layered graphene oxide sheets. These hybrid sheets are then embedded into a sandwich structured PFSA membrane reinforced with polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon). The nanoparticles also promote proton transport, offering high coulombic efficiency and energy efficiency of more than 98.1 percent and 88.9 percent, respectively. [36]

Flow Field

The resistive losses identified by the polarisation curve can be attributed to three main areas: activation loss, ohmic loss, and mass transport loss. Activation loss arises from slow charge transfer kinetics between the surface of the electrode and electrolyte. Ohmic losses are from the ohmic resistance of the electrolyte, electrode, membrane, and current collector. Ohmic losses can be reduced by improved cell design, such as zero-gap cell design and reduced membrane thickness. [37] Mass transport losses are from the lack of active vanadium species being transported to the electrode surface. The flow field design that promotes convective mass transport is crucial to reducing mass transport losses. [38] [39] Serpentine and interdigitated flow field designs were produced by machining a bipolar plate adjacent to the porous electrode. The felt electrode can also be cut to create an electrolyte flow channel. [40] [41] Both serpentine and interdigitated flow fields have been shown to enhance mass transport, which reduces mass transport polarisation and therefore increases limiting current density and peak power density. Flow dispensers are sometimes placed in the cell to distribute the flow and reduce jets. The flow field must also be designed to provide uniform electrolyte distribution to prevent dead zones in the cell and reduce pressure drop across the cell stack. [41] [42]

Operation

Cyclic voltammogram of vanadium (IV) solution in sulfuric acid solution Cyclic voltammetry of V(IV) solution.png
Cyclic voltammogram of vanadium (IV) solution in sulfuric acid solution

The reaction uses the half-reactions: [43]

VO+2 + 2H+ + e− → VO2+ + H2O ( E° = +1.00 V) [44]
V3+ + e− → V2+ (E° = −0.26 V) [45]

Other useful properties of vanadium flow batteries are their fast response to changing loads and their overload capacities. They can achieve a response time of under half a millisecond for a 100% load change, and allow overloads of as much as 400% for 10 seconds. Response time is limited mostly by the electrical equipment. Unless specifically designed for colder or warmer climates, most sulfuric acid-based vanadium batteries work between about 10 and 40 °C. Below that temperature range, the ion-infused sulfuric acid crystallizes. [46] Round trip efficiency in practical applications is around 70–80%. [47]

Proposed improvements

The original VRFB design by Skyllas-Kazacos employed sulfate (added as vanadium sulfate(s) and sulfuric acid) as the only anion in VRFB solutions, which limited the maximum vanadium concentration to 1.7 M of vanadium ions. [48] In the 1990s, Skyllas-Kazacos discovered the use of ammonium phosphate and other inorganic compounds as precipitation inhibitors to stabilise 2 M vanadium solutions over a temperature range of 5 to 45 oC and a Stabilising Agent patent was filed by UNSW in 1993. This discovery was largely overlooked however and in around 2010 a team from Pacific Northwest National Laboratory proposed a mixed sulfate-chloride electrolyte, that allowed for the use in VRFBs solutions with the vanadium concentration of 2.5 M over a whole temperature range between −20 and +50 °C. [49] [50] Based on the standard equilibrium potential of the V5+/V4+ couple it is expected to oxidize chloride, and for this reason chloride solutions were avoided in earlier VRFB studies. The surprising oxidative stability (albeit only at the state of charge below ca. 80%) of V5+ solutions in the presence of chloride was explained on the basis of activity coefficients. [51] Many researchers explain the increased stability of V(V) at elevated temperatures by the higher proton concentration in the mixed acid electrolyte that shifts the thermal precipitation equilibrium of V(V) away from V2O5. Nevertheless, because of a high vapor pressure of HCl solutions and the possibility of chlorine generation during charging, such mixed electrolytes have not been widely adopted. [52]

Another variation is the use of vanadium bromide salts. Since the redox potential of Br2/2Br- couple is more negative than that of V5+/V4+, the positive electrode operates via the bromine process. [53] However, due to problems with volatility and corrosivity of Br2, they did not gain much popularity (see zinc-bromine battery for a similar problem). A vanadium/cerium flow battery has also been proposed . [54]

Specific energy and energy density

VRBs achieve a specific energy of about 20 Wh/kg (72 kJ/kg) of electrolyte. Precipitation inhibitors can increase the density to about 35 Wh/kg (126 kJ/kg), with higher densities possible by controlling the electrolyte temperature. The specific energy is low compared to other rechargeable battery types (e.g., lead–acid, 30–40 Wh/kg (108–144 kJ/kg); and lithium ion, 80–200 Wh/kg (288–720 kJ/kg)).[ citation needed ]

Applications

VRFBs' large potential capacity may be best-suited to buffer the irregular output of utility-scale wind and solar systems. [21]

Their reduced self-discharge makes them potentially appropriate in applications that require long-term energy storage with little maintenance—as in military equipment, such as the sensor components of the GATOR mine system. [55] [21]

They feature rapid response times well suited to uninterruptible power supply (UPS) applications, where they can replace lead–acid batteries or diesel generators. Fast response time is also beneficial for frequency regulation. These capabilities make VRFBs an effective "all-in-one" solution for microgrids, frequency regulation and load shifting. [21]

Largest vanadium grid batteries

Largest operational vanadium redox batteries
Name Commissioning date Energy (MWh) Power (MW)Duration (hours)Country
Minami Hayakita Substation [56] [57] December 201560154Japan
Pfinztal, Baden-Württemberg [58] [59] [60] September 201920210 Germany
Woniushi, Liaoning [61] [62] 1052China
Tomamae Wind Farm [63] 2005641:30Japan
Zhangbei Project [64] 2016824China
SnoPUD MESA 2 Project [65] [66] March 2017824USA
San Miguel Substation [67] 2017824USA
Pullman Washington [68] April 2015414USA
Dalian Battery [69] October 2022400 (800)100 (200)4China

Companies funding or developing vanadium redox batteries

Companies funding or developing vanadium redox batteries include Sumitomo Electric Industries, [70] CellCube (Enerox), [71] UniEnergy Technologies, [72] StorEn Technologies [73] [74] in Australia, Largo Energy [75] and Ashlawn Energy [76] in the United States; H2 in Gyeryong-si, South Korea; [77] Renewable Energy Dynamics Technology, [78] Invinity Energy Systems [79] in the United Kingdom, VoltStorage [80] and Schmalz [81] [82] in Europe; Prudent Energy [83] in China; Australian Vanadium, CellCube and North Harbour Clean Energy [84] [85] in Australia; Yadlamalka Energy Trust and Invinity Energy Systems [86] [87] in Australia; EverFlow Energy JV SABIC SCHMID Group in Saudi Arabia [88] and Bushveld Minerals in South Africa. [89]

See also

Citations

  1. ↑ Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria; Kasherman, D.; Hong, D.R.; Kazacos, M. (September 1991). "Characteristics and performance of 1 kW UNSW vanadium redox battery". Journal of Power Sources. 35 (4): 399–404. Bibcode:1991JPS....35..399S. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(91)80058-6.
  2. 1 2 M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Rychcik and R. Robins, in AU Patent 575247 (1986), to Unisearch Ltd.
  3. ↑ Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030 . IRENA (2017), Electricity Storage and Renewables: Costs and Markets to 2030, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.
  4. ↑ Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (July 2017). "Review Article: Flow battery systems with solid electroactive materials". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B, Nanotechnology and Microelectronics: Materials, Processing, Measurement, and Phenomena. 35 (4): 040801. Bibcode:2017JVSTB..35d0801Q. doi: 10.1116/1.4983210 . ISSN   2166-2746.
  5. ↑ Laurence Knight (14 June 2014). "Vanadium: The metal that may soon be powering your neighbourhood". BBC. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  6. ↑ Alotto, P.; Guarnieri, M.; Moro, F. (2014). "Redox Flow Batteries for the storage of renewable energy: a review". Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. 29: 325–335. Bibcode:2014RSERv..29..325A. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.001. hdl:11577/2682306.
  7. ↑ James Purtill (2 February 2023). "Vanadium redox flow batteries can provide cheap, large-scale grid energy storage. Here's how they work". Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  8. ↑ P. A. Pissoort, in FR Patent 754065 (1933)
  9. ↑ A. Pelligri and P. M. Spaziante, in GB Patent 2030349 (1978), to Oronzio de Nori Impianti Elettrochimici S.p.A.
  10. ↑ Rychik, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (January 1988). "Characteristics of a new all-vanadium redox flow battery". Journal of Power Sources. 22 (1): 59–67. Bibcode:1988JPS....22...59R. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(88)80005-3.
  11. ↑ "Discovery and invention: How the vanadium flow battery story began". Energy Storage News. 18 October 2021. Archived from the original on 18 October 2021.
  12. ↑ "Vanadium Redox Battery | UNSW Research". research.unsw.edu.au.
  13. ↑ Chieng, S.C.; Kazacos, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (1992). "Preparation and evaluation of composite membrane for vanadium redox battery applications". Journal of Power Sources. 39 (1): 11–19. Bibcode:1992JPS....39...11C. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(92)85002-R.
  14. ↑ Chieng, S.C.; Kazacos, M.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (16 December 1992). "Modification of Daramic, microporous separator, for redox flow battery applications". Journal of Membrane Science. 75 (1–2): 81–91. doi:10.1016/0376-7388(92)80008-8.
  15. ↑ Sun, B.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (June 1992). "Modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—I. Thermal treatment". Electrochimica Acta. 37 (7): 1253–1260. doi:10.1016/0013-4686(92)85064-R.
  16. ↑ Sun, Bianting; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (October 1992). "Chemical modification of graphite electrode materials for vanadium redox flow battery application—part II. Acid treatments". Electrochimica Acta. 37 (13): 2459–2465. doi:10.1016/0013-4686(92)87084-D.
  17. ↑ Zhong, S.; Kazacos, M.; Burford, R.P.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (October 1991). "Fabrication and activation studies of conducting plastic composite electrodes for redox cells". Journal of Power Sources. 36 (1): 29–43. Bibcode:1991JPS....36...29Z. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(91)80042-V.
  18. ↑ Tang, Ao; McCann, John; Bao, Jie; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (November 2013). "Investigation of the effect of shunt current on battery efficiency and stack temperature in vanadium redox flow battery". Journal of Power Sources. 242: 349–356. Bibcode:2013JPS...242..349T. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.05.079.
  19. 1 2 Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (1 July 2022). "Review—Highlights of UNSW All-Vanadium Redox Battery Development: 1983 to Present". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 169 (7): 070513. Bibcode:2022JElS..169g0513S. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/ac7bab. S2CID   250007049.
  20. ↑ Tolmachev, Yuriy V. (1 March 2023). "Review—Flow Batteries from 1879 to 2022 and Beyond". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 170 (3): 030505. Bibcode:2023JElS..170c0505T. doi: 10.1149/1945-7111/acb8de . S2CID   256592096.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Ragsdale, Rose (May 2020). "Vanadium fuels growing demand for VRFBs". Metal Tech News. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  22. ↑ "Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries" (PDF). Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. October 2012.
  23. ↑ Miller, Kelsey. UniEnergy Technologies Goes from Molecules to Megawatts Archived 31 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine , Clean Tech Alliance, 7 July 2014. Accessed 21 January 2016.
  24. ↑ Spagnuolo, G.; Petrone, G.; Mattavelli, P.; Guarnieri, M. (2016). "Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries: Potentials and Challenges of an Emerging Storage Technology". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 10 (4): 20–31. doi:10.1109/MIE.2016.2611760. hdl: 11577/3217695 . S2CID   28206437.
  25. ↑ Flow batteries. Volume 1. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 2023. ISBN   978-3-527-35171-8.
  26. ↑ Lourenssen, Kyle; Williams, James; Ahmadpour, Faraz; Clemmer, Ryan; Tasnim, Syeda (October 2019). "Vanadium redox flow batteries: A comprehensive review". Journal of Energy Storage. 25: 100844. Bibcode:2019JEnSt..2500844L. doi:10.1016/j.est.2019.100844.
  27. 1 2 He, Zhangxing; Lv, Yanrong; Zhang, Tianao; Zhu, Ye; Dai, Lei; Yao, Shuo; Zhu, Wenjie; Wang, Ling (January 2022). "Electrode materials for vanadium redox flow batteries: Intrinsic treatment and introducing catalyst". Chemical Engineering Journal. 427: 131680. Bibcode:2022ChEnJ.42731680H. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2021.131680.
  28. ↑ Chakrabarti, M.H.; Brandon, N.P.; Hajimolana, S.A.; Tariq, F.; Yufit, V.; Hashim, M.A.; Hussain, M.A.; Low, C.T.J.; Aravind, P.V. (May 2014). "Application of carbon materials in redox flow batteries". Journal of Power Sources. 253: 150–166. Bibcode:2014JPS...253..150C. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.12.038.
  29. ↑ Singh, Manoj K.; Kapoor, Manshu; Verma, Anil (May 2021). "Recent progress on carbon and metal based electrocatalysts for vanadium redox flow battery". WIREs Energy and Environment. 10 (3). Bibcode:2021WIREE..10E.393S. doi:10.1002/wene.393.
  30. 1 2 Bourke, Andrea; Oboroceanu, Daniela; Quill, Nathan; Lenihan, Catherine; Safi, Maria Alhajji; Miller, Mallory A.; Savinell, Robert F.; Wainright, Jesse S.; SasikumarSP, Varsha; Rybalchenko, Maria; Amini, Pupak; Dalton, Niall; Lynch, Robert P.; Buckley, D. Noel (1 March 2023). "Review—Electrode Kinetics and Electrolyte Stability in Vanadium Flow Batteries". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 170 (3): 030504. Bibcode:2023JElS..170c0504B. doi:10.1149/1945-7111/acbc99.
  31. ↑ Huong Le, Thi Xuan; Bechelany, Mikhael; Cretin, Marc (October 2017). "Carbon felt based-electrodes for energy and environmental applications: A review" (PDF). Carbon. 122: 564–591. Bibcode:2017Carbo.122..564H. doi:10.1016/j.carbon.2017.06.078.
  32. ↑ Parasuraman, Aishwarya; Lim, Tuti Mariana; Menictas, Chris; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (July 2013). "Review of material research and development for vanadium redox flow battery applications". Electrochimica Acta. 101: 27–40. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.067.
  33. ↑ Guo, Yun; Huang, Jie; Feng, Jun-Kai (February 2023). "Research progress in preparation of electrolyte for all-vanadium redox flow battery". Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 118: 33–43. doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2022.11.037. S2CID   253783900.
  34. ↑ Zhang, Yue; Zhang, Denghua; Luan, Chao; Zhang, Yifan; Yu, Wenjie; Liu, Jianguo; Yan, Chuanwei (24 February 2023). "An Economical Composite Membrane with High Ion Selectivity for Vanadium Flow Batteries". Membranes. 13 (3): 272. doi: 10.3390/membranes13030272 . PMC   10057319 . PMID   36984659.
  35. ↑ Tempelman, C. H. L.; Jacobs, J. F.; Balzer, R. M.; Degirmenci, V. (1 December 2020). "Membranes for all vanadium redox flow batteries". Journal of Energy Storage. 32: 101754. Bibcode:2020JEnSt..3201754T. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101754 .
  36. ↑ Lavars, Nick (12 November 2021). "Hybrid membrane edges flow batteries toward grid-scale energy storage". New Atlas. Retrieved 14 November 2021.
  37. ↑ Shi, Yu; Eze, Chika; Xiong, Binyu; He, Weidong; Zhang, Han; Lim, T.M.; Ukil, A.; Zhao, Jiyun (March 2019). "Recent development of membrane for vanadium redox flow battery applications: A review". Applied Energy. 238: 202–224. Bibcode:2019ApEn..238..202S. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.12.087. hdl: 10356/144619 .
  38. ↑ Milshtein, Jarrod D.; Tenny, Kevin M.; Barton, John L.; Drake, Javit; Darling, Robert M.; Brushett, Fikile R. (2017). "Quantifying Mass Transfer Rates in Redox Flow Batteries". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 164 (11): E3265–E3275. doi: 10.1149/2.0201711jes .
  39. ↑ Aaron, Doug; Tang, Zhijiang; Papandrew, Alexander B.; Zawodzinski, Thomas A. (October 2011). "Polarization curve analysis of all-vanadium redox flow batteries". Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 41 (10): 1175–1182. doi:10.1007/s10800-011-0335-7.
  40. ↑ Reed, David; Thomsen, Edwin; Li, Bin; Wang, Wei; Nie, Zimin; Koeppel, Brian; Kizewski, James; Sprenkle, Vincent (2016). "Stack Developments in a kW Class All Vanadium Mixed Acid Redox Flow Battery at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 163 (1): A5211–A5219. doi: 10.1149/2.0281601jes .
  41. 1 2 Arenas, L.F.; Ponce de León, C.; Walsh, F.C. (June 2017). "Engineering aspects of the design, construction and performance of modular redox flow batteries for energy storage" (PDF). Journal of Energy Storage. 11: 119–153. Bibcode:2017JEnSt..11..119A. doi:10.1016/j.est.2017.02.007.
  42. ↑ Yao, Yanxin; Lei, Jiafeng; Shi, Yang; Ai, Fei; Lu, Yi-Chun (11 February 2021). "Assessment methods and performance metrics for redox flow batteries". Nature Energy. 6 (6): 582–588. Bibcode:2021NatEn...6..582Y. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-00772-8.
  43. ↑ Jin, Jutao; Fu, Xiaogang; Liu, Qiao; Liu, Yanru; Wei, Zhiyang; Niu, Kexing; Zhang, Junyan (25 June 2013). "Identifying the Active Site in Nitrogen-Doped Graphene for the VO 2+ /VO 2 + Redox Reaction". ACS Nano. 7 (6): 4764–4773. doi:10.1021/nn3046709. PMID   23647240.
  44. ↑ Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred (1999), Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.), New York: Wiley-Interscience, ISBN   0-471-19957-5
  45. ↑ Atkins, Peter (2010). Inorganic Chemistry (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 153. ISBN   978-1-42-921820-7.
  46. ↑ DOE/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (17 March 2011). "Electric Grid Reliability: Increasing Energy Storage in Vanadium Redox Batteries by 70 Percent". Science Daily. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  47. ↑ Revankar, Shripad T. (2019). "Chapter 6. Chemical Energy Storage". In Bindra, Hitesh & Revankar, Shripad (eds.). Storage and Hybridization of Nuclear Energy – Techno-economic Integration of Renewable and Nuclear Energy. London: Academic Press. pp. 177–227. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-813975-2.00006-5. ISBN   9780128139752. S2CID   189154686.
  48. ↑ M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Rychcik and G. Robins Robert, "All vanadium redox battery." 1986AU-0055562 1986-04-02. M. Skyllas-Kazacos, "All-vanadium redox battery and additives." 1988WO-AU00472 1988-12-091989AU-0028153 1989-12-09. M. Skyllas-Kazacos, M. Kazacos and C. Mcdermott Rodney John, "Vanadium charging cell and vanadium dual battery system." 1989AU-0028152 1989-12-09. M. Kazacos and S. Kazacos Maria, "High energy density vanadium electrolyte solutions, methods of preparation thereof and all-vanadium redox cells and batteries containing high energy vanadium electrolyte solutions." 1996AT-0911853T 1996-05-031996AU-0054914 1996-05-031996US-08945869 1996-05-031996WO-AU00268 1996-05-031996NZ-0306364 1996-05-031996ES-0911853T 1996-05-031996EP-0911853 1996-05-031996DE-6030298 1996-05-031996CA-2220075 1996-05-031998HK-0110321 1998-08-312002US-10226751 2002-08-22
  49. ↑ Li, L.; Kim, S.; Wang, W.; Vijayakumar, M.; Nie, Z.; Chen, B.; Zhang, J.; Xia, G.; Hu, J.; Graff, G.; Liu, J.; Yang, Z. (2011). "A stable vanadium redox-flow battery with high energy density for large-scale energy storage". Advanced Energy Materials. 1 (3): 394–400. Bibcode:2011AdEnM...1..394L. doi:10.1002/aenm.201100008. S2CID   33277301.
  50. ↑ Yang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Tang, L.; Liu, T.; Huang, J.; Peng, S.; Yang, X. (September 2019). "Investigations on physicochemical properties and electrochemical performance of sulfate-chloride mixed acid electrolyte for vanadium redox flow battery". Journal of Power Sources. 434: Article 226719. Bibcode:2019JPS...43426719Y. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226719. S2CID   197352614.
  51. ↑ Roznyatovskaya, N.; Noack, J.; Mild, H.; Fühl, M.; Fischer, P.; Pinkwart, K.; Tübke, J.; Skyllas-Kazacos, M. (2019). "Vanadium electrolyte for all-vanadium redox-flow batteries: the effect of the counter ion". Batteries. 5 (1): 13. doi: 10.3390/batteries5010013 .
  52. ↑ Yuriy V Tolmachev. Review—Flow Batteries From 1879 To 2022 And Beyond. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1945-7111/acb8de/meta
  53. ↑ Vafiadis, Helen; Skyllas-Kazacos, Maria (2006). "Evaluation of membranes for the novel vanadium bromine redox flow cell". Journal of Membrane Science. 279 (1–2): 394–402. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2005.12.028.
  54. ↑ Sankarasubramanian, Shrihari; Zhang, Yunzhu; Ramani, Vijay (2019). "Methanesulfonic acid-based electrode-decoupled vanadium–cerium redox flow battery exhibits significantly improved capacity and cycle life". Sustainable Energy & Fuels. 3 (9): 2417–2425. doi:10.1039/C9SE00286C. ISSN   2398-4902. S2CID   199071949.
  55. ↑ Allbright, Greg, et al. A Comparison of Lead Acid to Lithium-ion in Stationary Storage Applications All Cell, March 2012
  56. ↑ Stone, Mike (3 February 2016). "A Look at the Biggest Energy Storage Projects Built Around the World in the Last Year" . Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  57. ↑ "DOE Global Energy Storage Database". energystorageexchange.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  58. ↑ "Redox-Flow-Batterien". Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  59. ↑ Armin Herberger (19 January 2021). "Hybridspeichersystem in Wohnquartier – KIT plant in Bruchsal Weltpremiere mit Strom-Wärme-Kopplung". Badische Neueste Nachrichten Kraichgau. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  60. ↑ "Großprojekt "RedoxWind"". Fraunhofer-Institut für Chemische Technologie.
  61. ↑ "Energy Storage in China". ees-magazine.com. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  62. ↑ Zonghao, L. I. U.; Huamin, Zhang; Sujun, G. a. O.; Xiangkun, M. A.; Yufeng, L. I. U.; 刘宗浩, 张华民. "The world's largest all-vanadium redox flow battery energy storage system for a wind farm, 风场配套用全球最大全钒液流电池储能系统". 储能科学与技术. 3 (1): 71–77. doi:10.3969/j.issn.2095-4239.2014.01.010. Archived from the original on 13 August 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  63. ↑ "DOE Global Energy Storage Database". energystorageexchange.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  64. ↑ "DOE Global Energy Storage Database". energystorageexchange.org. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  65. ↑ "UET and Snohomish County PUD Dedicate the World's Largest Capacity Containerized Flow Battery". Energy Storage News. 29 March 2017. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  66. ↑ "PUD invests $11.2 million in energy-storing units". Everett Herald. 2 November 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
  67. ↑ "SDG&E and Sumitomo unveil largest vanadium redox flow battery in the US". Energy Storage News. 17 March 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
  68. ↑ Wesoff, Eric, St. John, Jeff. Largest Capacity Flow Battery in North America and EU is Online, Greentech Media, June 2015. Accessed 21 January 2016.
  69. ↑ "World's largest flow battery connected to the grid in China". New Atlas. 3 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  70. ↑ "Redox Flow Battery". SumitomoElectric. Retrieved 1 March 2023.
  71. ↑ "CellCube – the versatile energy storage system of the future". Cellcube. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
  72. ↑ Steve Wilhelm (3 July 2014). "Liquid battery the size of a truck, will give utilities a charge". Puget Sound Business Journal. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  73. ↑ Entrepreneur, Office of the Queensland Chief (3 February 2021). "How Queensland can supercharge the future of batteries". Office of the Queensland Chief Entrepreneur. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  74. ↑ "StorEn Tech Provides First of Its Kind Vanadium Flow Battery To Australia". CleanTechnica. 19 December 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  75. ↑ "Vanadium producer Largo prepares 1.4GWh of flow battery stack manufacturing capacity". 6 May 2021.
  76. ↑ BILL HAGSTRAND (23 August 2013). "Vanadium redox: powering up local communities". Crain's Cleveland Business. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  77. ↑ Andy Colthorpe (14 November 2022). "South Korean flow battery maker H2 building 330MWh factory". Energy Storage News. Retrieved 29 June 2023.
  78. ↑ "US clean-tech investments leap to US$1.1bn. Where's Ireland at?". Silicon Republic. 11 April 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  79. ↑ "'UK's first' grid-scale battery storage system comes online in Oxford". 24 June 2021.
  80. ↑ "Voltstorage develops a safe and ecological storage solution". 16 January 2018.
  81. ↑ "Lösungen für Energiespeichersysteme: Schmalz baut weiteres Geschäftsfeld auf". Windkraft-Journal. 16 June 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  82. ↑ "Stacks of Schmalz". J. Schmalz GmbH. 28 May 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  83. ↑ Jeff St. John (2 March 2010). "Made in China: Prudent Energy Lands $22M For Flow Batteries". GigaOm. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
  84. ↑ "Australian Vanadium Ltd ships first vanadium flow battery from Austria". Proactive Investors. 13 July 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2017.
  85. ↑ "Vanadium flow battery partners sign agreement to develop gigafactory in Australia". VSUN Energy. 24 November 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
  86. ↑ "Renewable technology solutions to enable a sustainable energy future". Yadlamalka Energy. 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
  87. ↑ Gabriella Marchant (4 January 2021). "Australian Renewable Energy Agency backs vanadium flow battery project in outback SA". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
  88. ↑ "3GWh flow battery manufacturing facility to be constructed in Saudi Arabia". 16 May 2020.
  89. ↑ "Vanadium producer Bushveld Minerals begins building flow battery electrolyte plant in South Africa". 15 June 2021.

General and cited references

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrochemical cell</span> Electro-chemical device

An electrochemical cell is a device that generates electrical energy from chemical reactions. Electrical energy can also be applied to these cells to cause chemical reactions to occur. Electrochemical cells that generate an electric current are called voltaic or galvanic cells and those that generate chemical reactions, via electrolysis for example, are called electrolytic cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion battery</span> Rechargeable battery type

A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries, Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, higher energy density, higher energy efficiency, a longer cycle life, and a longer calendar life. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium–sulfur battery</span> Type of molten-salt battery

A sodium–sulfur (NaS) battery is a type of molten-salt battery that uses liquid sodium and liquid sulfur electrodes. This type of battery has a similar energy density to lithium-ion batteries, and is fabricated from inexpensive and non-toxic materials. However, due to the high operating temperature required, as well as the highly corrosive and reactive nature of sodium and sodium polysulfides, these batteries are primarily suited for stationary energy storage applications, rather than for use in vehicles. Molten Na-S batteries are scalable in size: there is a 1 MW microgrid support system on Catalina Island CA (USA) and a 50 MW/300 MWh system in Fukuoka, Kyushu, (Japan).

A proton-exchange membrane, or polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM), is a semipermeable membrane generally made from ionomers and designed to conduct protons while acting as an electronic insulator and reactant barrier, e.g. to oxygen and hydrogen gas. This is their essential function when incorporated into a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell or of a proton-exchange membrane electrolyser: separation of reactants and transport of protons while blocking a direct electronic pathway through the membrane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flow battery</span> Type of electrochemical cell

A flow battery, or redox flow battery, is a type of electrochemical cell where chemical energy is provided by two chemical components dissolved in liquids that are pumped through the system on separate sides of a membrane. Ion transfer inside the cell occurs across the membrane while the liquids circulate in their respective spaces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrolysis of water</span> Electricity-induced chemical reaction

Electrolysis of water is using electricity to split water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis. Hydrogen gas released in this way can be used as hydrogen fuel, but must be kept apart from the oxygen as the mixture would be extremely explosive. Separately pressurised into convenient 'tanks' or 'gas bottles', hydrogen can be used for oxyhydrogen welding and other applications, as the hydrogen / oxygen flame can reach approximately 2,800°C.

A zinc-bromine battery is a rechargeable battery system that uses the reaction between zinc metal and bromine to produce electric current, with an electrolyte composed of an aqueous solution of zinc bromide. Zinc has long been used as the negative electrode of primary cells. It is a widely available, relatively inexpensive metal. It is rather stable in contact with neutral and alkaline aqueous solutions. For this reason, it is used today in zinc–carbon and alkaline primaries.

The polysulfide–bromine battery, is a type of rechargeable electric battery, which stores electric energy in liquids, such as water-based solutions of two salts: sodium bromide and sodium polysulfide. It is an example and type of redox (reduction–oxidation) flow battery.

A metal–air electrochemical cell is an electrochemical cell that uses an anode made from pure metal and an external cathode of ambient air, typically with an aqueous or aprotic electrolyte.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pseudocapacitor</span>

Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy faradaically by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte. This is accomplished through electrosorption, reduction-oxidation reactions, and intercalation processes, termed pseudocapacitance.

A potassium-ion battery or K-ion battery is a type of battery and analogue to lithium-ion batteries, using potassium ions for charge transfer instead of lithium ions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zinc–cerium battery</span>

Zinc–cerium batteries are a type of redox flow battery first developed by Plurion Inc. (UK) during the 2000s. In this rechargeable battery, both negative zinc and positive cerium electrolytes are circulated though an electrochemical flow reactor during the operation and stored in two separated reservoirs. Negative and positive electrolyte compartments in the electrochemical reactor are separated by a cation-exchange membrane, usually Nafion (DuPont). The Ce(III)/Ce(IV) and Zn(II)/Zn redox reactions take place at the positive and negative electrodes, respectively. Since zinc is electroplated during charge at the negative electrode this system is classified as a hybrid flow battery. Unlike in zinc–bromine and zinc–chlorine redox flow batteries, no condensation device is needed to dissolve halogen gases. The reagents used in the zinc-cerium system are considerably less expensive than those used in the vanadium flow battery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercapacitor</span> High-capacity electrochemical capacitor

A supercapacitor (SC), also called an ultracapacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor, with a capacitance value much higher than solid-state capacitors but with lower voltage limits. It bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It typically stores 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors, can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerates many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.

A hydrogen–bromine battery is a rechargeable flow battery in which hydrogen bromide (HBr) serves as the system’s electrolyte. During the charge cycle, as power flows into the stack, H2 is generated and stored in a separate tank, the other product of the chemical reaction is HBr3 which accumulates in the electrolyte. During the discharge cycle the H2 is combined again with the HBr3 and the system returns to its initial stage with a full tank of HBr. The electrolyte suffers no degradation during the process and the system is self contained with no emissions.

A lithium-ion flow battery is a flow battery that uses a form of lightweight lithium as its charge carrier. The flow battery stores energy separately from its system for discharging. The amount of energy it can store is determined by tank size; its power density is determined by the size of the reaction chamber.

Research in lithium-ion batteries has produced many proposed refinements of lithium-ion batteries. Areas of research interest have focused on improving energy density, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and reducing cost.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solid dispersion redox flow battery</span>

A solid dispersion redox flow battery is a type of redox flow battery using dispersed solid active materials as the energy storage media. The solid suspensions are stored in energy storage tanks and pumped through electrochemical cells while charging or discharging. In comparison with a conventional redox flow battery where active species are dissolved in aqueous or organic electrolyte, the active materials in a solid dispersion redox flow battery maintain the solid form and are suspended in the electrolyte. Further development expanded the applicable active materials. The solid active materials, especially with active materials from lithium-ion battery, can help the suspensions achieve much higher energy densities than conventional redox flow batteries. This concept is similar to semi-solid flow batteries in which slurries of active materials accompanied by conductive carbon additives to facilitate electrons conducting are stored in energy storage tanks and pumped through the electrochemical reaction cells. Based upon this technique, an analytical method was developed to measure the electrochemical performance of lithium-ion battery active materials, named dispersed particle resistance (DPR).

Maria Skyllas-Kazacos FTSE is an Australian chemical engineer best known for her pioneering work of the vanadium redox battery, which she created at the University of New South Wales in the 1980s. Her design used sulfuric acid electrolytes and was patented by the university. In 1999 she was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia "for service to science and technology, particularly in the development of the vanadium redox battery as an alternative power source".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Semi-solid flow battery</span>

A semi-solid flow battery is a type of flow battery using solid battery active materials or involving solid species in the energy carrying fluid. A research team in MIT proposed this concept using lithium-ion battery materials. In such a system, both positive (cathode) and negative electrode (anode) consist of active material particles with carbon black suspended in liquid electrolyte. Active material suspensions are stored in two energy storage tanks. The suspensions are pumped into the electrochemical reaction cell when charging and discharging. This design takes advantage of both the designing flexibility of flow batteries and the high energy density active materials of lithium-ion batteries.

The Iron Redox Flow Battery (IRFB), also known as Iron Salt Battery (ISB), stores and releases energy through the electrochemical reaction of iron salt. This type of battery belongs to the class of redox-flow batteries (RFB), which are alternative solutions to Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIB) for stationary applications. The IRFB can achieve up to 70% round trip energy efficiency. In comparison, other long duration storage technologies such as pumped hydro energy storage provide around 80% round trip energy efficiency.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.