The Qutb Minar, also spelled Qutub Minar and Qutab Minar, is a minaret and victory tower comprising the Qutb complex, which lies at the site of Delhi's oldest fortified city, Lal Kot, founded by the Tomar Rajputs.[3] It is a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi, India.[4][5] It was mostly built between 1199 and 1220, contains 399 steps, and is one of the most-frequented heritage spots in the city.[6][7][4] Qutab-ud-din Aibak initiated construction of the Qutub Minar, but only managed to finish the first level. Successors continued the construction, and, in 1368, Firuz Shah Tughlaq rebuilt the top parts and added a cupola.[8]
It can be compared to the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c.1190, which was constructed a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower.[9] The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns. The Qutb Minar has a shaft that is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage.[10][11][12] In general, minarets were slow to be used in India and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist.[13]
In recent years, the Qutub Minar has been illuminated for special occasions involving international relations. In September 2023, the monument was lit up in the colours of the Mexican flag to commemorate Mexico's 213th Independence Day, an event that was acknowledged and appreciated by the Embassy of Mexico in India.[14] Similarly, on October 30, the Qutub Minar was illuminated with the Turkish flag to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Republic of Turkey, an occasion that received special attention from the Turkish Embassy in New Delhi.[15]
Architecture
The tower includes elements of traditional Islamic architecture and southwestern Asian design. Elizabeth Lambourn's Islam Beyond Empires: Mosques and Islamic Landscapes in India and the Indian Ocean studies the introduction of Islam in South Asia and how the region influenced the Islamic religious architecture.[16] These newly arrived Muslims from the Islamic West escaped the Mongol Empire and emigrated to India, where they constructed religious centers. The Qutb Minar serves as a central marker to these new Muslim communities as well as being a reminder of Islam's presence in the area.[16] The architecture of the minaret varies greatly from that of the typical style and design of the mosques constructed in the Middle East. The style of these structures is influenced by the local architecture such as the Indic temples. This affected the different materials, techniques, and decoration that were used in the construction of the Qutb Minar.[16]
Historically, tower minarets were uncommon in South Asian-Islamic design until the 17th century, due to the slow adoption of the typical Middle Eastern style in India.[16] It is also detached from the main mosque, showcasing how the native culture affected the design of a Middle Eastern structure.[13] The Qutb Minar is seen as the "earliest and best example of a fusion or synthesis of Hindu-Muslim traditions" according to Ved Parkash in his essay The Qutb Minar from Contemporary and Near Contemporary Sources.[16] Like many mosques built in South Asia during this time period, the minaret was constructed by Hindu laborers and craftsmen but overseen by Muslim architects.[16] This led to a construction that synthesized both Hindu and Islamic religious architecture. Since some of the craftsmen were Hindu and unfamiliar with the Quran, the inscriptions are a compilation of disarranged Quranic texts and other Arabic expressions.[16]
History
The Qutb Minar was built over the ruins of the Lal Kot, the citadel of Dhillika.[7] Qutub Minar was begun after the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque. Drawing references from their Ghurid homeland, Qutub-ud-Din Aibak and Shamsu’d-Din Iltutmish constructed a minar (minaret) at the south-eastern corner of the Quwwatu’l-Islam between 1199 and 1503.[17]
Kuttull Minor, Delhi. The Qutb Minar, 1805
It is usually thought that the tower is named for Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who began it. It is also possible that it is named after Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki a 13th-century sufi saint, because Shamsuddin Iltutmish was a devotee of his.[18]
The Minar is surrounded by several historically significant monuments of the Qutb complex. Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, to the north-east of the Minar was built by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak in A.D. 1199. It is the earliest extant - mosque built by the Delhi Sultans. It consists of a rectangular courtyard enclosed by cloisters, erected with the carved columns and architectural members of 27 Jain and Hindu temples, which were demolished by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak as recorded in his inscription on the main eastern entrance.[19] Later, a lofty arched screen was erected, and the mosque was enlarged by Shams-ud- Din Itutmish (A.D. 1210–35) and Ala-ud-Din Khalji. The Iron Pillar in the courtyard bears an inscription in Sanskrit in Brahmi script of fourth century A.D., according to which the pillar was set up as a Vishnudhvaja (standard of god Vishnu) on the hill known as Vishnupada in memory of a mighty king named Chandra.[19]
The mosque complex is one of the earliest that survives in the Indian subcontinent.[6][7]
The nearby pillared cupola known as "Smith's Folly" is a remnant of the tower's 19th century restoration, which included an ill-advised attempt to add some more stories.[20][21]
In 1505, an earthquake damaged the Qutub Minar; it was repaired by Sikander Lodi. On 1 September 1803, a major earthquake caused serious damage. Major Robert Smith of the British Indian Army renovated the tower in 1828 and installed a pillared cupola over the fifth story, creating a sixth. The cupola was taken down in 1848, under instructions from The Viscount Hardinge, the Governor General of India. at the time. It was reinstalled at the ground level to the east of Qutb Minar, where it remains. This is known as "Smith's Folly".[22]
It was added to the list of World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1993.
The Ghurids
Decorative motifs on upper levels
The construction of the Qutb Minar was planned and financed by the Ghurids, who emigrated to India and brought Islam with them. The Ghurids, historically known as the Shansabanis, were a clan of Tajik origin that hailed from Ghur, the mountainous region of modern-day western Afghanistan.[23] Between the late eleventh century and the early twelfth century, the different sects of this nomadic clan united, relinquishing their nomadic culture. During this time, they also embraced Islam.[23]
They subsequently expanded into modern-day India and quickly took control of a substantial part of the country.[23] The Ghurids annexed the Multan and Uch in the western Punjab in 1175–76, the northwestern regions around Peshawar in 1177, and the region of Sindh in 1185–86. In 1193, Qutb al-Din Aibak conquered Delhi and implemented a Ghurid governorship in the province, and the congregational mosque, the Qutb Minar complex, was founded in 1193.[23] In the past, scholars believed that the complex was constructed to promote adoption of Islam amongst the Ghurids' new subjects as well as a symbol of the Ghurids' adherence to a socio-religious system.[23] There is now new information to suggest that spurring the adoption of Islam was not a top priority of the new annexes and instead the Ghurid governors sought to make a synthesis of the local culture and Islam through negotiation.[23]
Patrons and architects
Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a deputy of Muhammad of Ghor, who founded the Delhi Sultanate after Muhammad of Ghor's death, started construction of the Qutb Minar's first story in 1199. Aibak's successor and son-in-law Shamsuddin Iltutmish completed a further three stories.[18] After a lightning strike in 1369 damaged the then top story, the ruler at the time, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, replaced the damaged story and added one more. Sher Shah Suri also added an entrance while he was ruling and the Mughal emperor Humayun was in exile.[1]
Architecture
Qutb Minar in Mehrauli in Delhi. Clifton and Co., circa 1890
Persian-Arabic and Nagari in different sections of the Qutb Minar reveal the history of its construction and the later restorations and repairs by Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–88) and Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517).[24]
The height of Qutb Minar is 72.5 meters, making it the tallest minaret in the world built of bricks.[2][25] The tower tapers, and has a 14.3 metres (47 feet) base diameter, reducing to 2.7 metres (9 feet) at the top of the peak.[26] It contains a spiral staircase of 379 steps.[27][1]
At the foot of the tower is the Quwat Ul Islam Mosque. The Minar tilts just over 65cm from the vertical, which is considered to be within safe limits.[28]
Qutb Minar was an inspiration and prototype for many minarets and towers built. The Chand Minar and Mini Qutub Minar bear resemblance to the Qutb Minar and inspired from it.[29]
Levels
The stories of the Qutb Minar vary in size, style, and material due to varying architects and builders constructing each section.
Inscriptions at the base
Basement
The Qutb Minar consists of five stories of red and grey sandstone. The lowest story, also known as the basement story, was completed during the lifetime of Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, a sultan of the Ghurid dynasty.[30]
It is revetted with twelve semicircular and twelve flanged pilasters that are placed in alternating order.[30] This story is separated by flanges and by storied balconies, carried on Muqarnascorbels.[27] The story is placed on top of a low circular plinth that is inscribed with a twelve-pointed star with a semicircle placed with each of the angles between the star's points.[30]
There are also six horizontal bands with inscriptions inscribed in naskh, a style of Islamic calligraphy, on this story. The inscriptions are as follows: Quran, sura II, verses 255–60; Quran, sura LIX, verses 22–23, and attributes of God; The name and titles of Ghiyath al-Din; Quran, sura XLVIII, verses 1–6; The name and titles of Mu’izz al-Din; and Qur’anic quotations and the following titles in this much restored inscription: "The Amir, the most glorious and great commander of the army."[30] This level also has inscriptions praising Muhammad of Ghor, the sultan of the Ghurids.[18]
Second, third, and fourth stories
The second, third, and fourth stories were erected by Sham ud-Din Iltutmish, the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi.[31] He is considered to be the first of the Delhi Sultan dynastic line.[31] The second and third stories are also revetted with twelve semicircular and twelve flanged pilasters that are placed in alternating order.[30] These red sandstone columns are separated by flanges and by storied balconies, carried on Muqarnas corbels.[27] Prior to its reconstruction and reduction, the fourth story was also decorated with semicircular pilasters.[30] It was re-constructed in white marble and is relatively plain.[27]
Fifth story
In 1369, the fourth story was repaired after lightning struck the minaret. During reconstruction, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq elected to reduce the size of the fourth story and then separated it into two stories.[31]
Controversy
Close-up of balcony
On 14 November 2000, Delhi newspapers reported that the Hindu nationalist groups, Vishva Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal, planned to conduct a yajna, a ritualistic Hindu ceremony related to cleansing or purification, at the Qutub Minar complex where the minaret is located.[19]Delhi Police detained 80 "activists" led by Ram Krishan Gaur who congregated near the Qutb Minar and were stopped from performing the yajna inside the tower. Due to a police barricade, the activists instead performed the ritual on the streets outside the mosque complex.[32] Since the spolia of Jain and Hindu temples were used to construct the minaret, the right-wing Hindu groups claimed that they needed to perform a cleansing at the complex in order to "free" the Hindu icons that were "trapped" in the minaret and the mosque complex.[19]
On 18 May 2022, a former Regional Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, Dharamveer Sharma, claimed that Qutb Minar was built by Raja Vikramaditya in the fifth century to observe the changing position of the sun, without substantiating his assertion.[33]
On 21 May 2022, the Secretary at the Ministry of Culture, Govind Mohan, decided to conduct excavation and iconography of idols found at Qutub Minar. The Ministry has asked the ASI to submit an excavation report. Excavation can be started in the south of the minaret at a distance of 15 meters from the mosque.[34]
Before 1976, the general public was allowed access to the first floor of the minaret, via the internal staircase. Access to the top ceased after 2000 due to suicides.
On 4 December 1981, the staircase lighting failed. Between 300 and 400 visitors stampeded towards the exit. 45 were killed and some were injured. Most of these were school children.[37] Since then, the tower has been closed to the public. This incident triggered the imposition of stringent rules regarding entry.[38]
Bollywood actor and director Dev Anand wanted to shoot the song "Dil Ka Bhanwar Kare Pukar" from his film Tere Ghar Ke Samne inside the Minar. However, the cameras of that period were too big to fit inside the tower's narrow passage, and therefore the song was shot inside a replica of the Qutb Minar.[40]
A picture of the minaret is featured on the travel cards and tokens issued by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. A recently launched start-up in collaboration with the Archaeological Survey of India has made a 360o walkthrough of Qutb Minar available.[42]
The Ministry of Tourism recently gave seven companies the 'Letters of Intent' for fourteen monuments under its 'Adopt a Heritage Scheme.' Qutb Minar has been chosen to part of that list.[43][44]
Gallery
Qutb Minar
Left to Right:Alai Darwaza, Qutb Minar, Imam Zamin's tomb
1 2 3 4 5 6 Patel, A. (2004). "Toward Alternative Receptions of Ghurid Architecture in North India (Late Twelfth-Early Thirtheenth Century CE)". Archives of Asian Art. 54: 35–61. doi:10.1484/aaa.2004.0004. JSTOR20111315.
1 2 3 Shafiqullah, Shah Muhammad (1 January 1993). "The Qutb Minar: An Observation on Its Calligraphy". Islamic Quarterly. 37 (4): 281–286. ProQuest1304273557.
The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent, for more than three centuries. The sultanate was established around c. 1206–1211 in the former Ghurid territories in India. The sultanate's history is generally divided into five periods: Mamluk (1206–1290), Khalji (1290–1320), Tughlaq (1320–1414), Sayyid (1414–1451), and Lodi (1451–1526). It covered large swaths of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, as well as some parts of southern Nepal.
The Qutb Minar complex are monuments and buildings from the Delhi Sultanate at Mehrauli in Delhi, India. Construction of the Qutub Minar "victory tower" in the complex, named after the religious figure Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, was begun by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later became the first Sultan of Delhi of the Mamluk dynasty. It was continued by his successor Iltutmish, and finally completed much later by Firoz Shah Tughlaq, a Sultan of Delhi from the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1412) in 1368 AD. The Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque, later corrupted into Quwwat-ul Islam, stands next to the Qutb Minar.
Shams ud-Din Iltutmish was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi, and is thus considered the effective founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
Qutb ud-Din Aibak was a Turkic general of the Ghurid emperor Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori. He was in charge of the Ghurid territories in northern India, and after Muhammad Ghori's assassination in 1206, he established his own independent rule in Lahore, and laid the foundations for the Sultanate of Delhi.
The Mamluk dynasty, or the Mamluk Sultanate, is the historiographical name or umbrella term used to refer to the three dynasties of Mamluk origin who ruled the Ghurid territories in India and subsequently, the Sultanate of Delhi, from 1206 to 1290 — the Qutbi dynasty (1206–1211), the first Ilbari or Shamsi dynasty (1211–1266) and the second Ilbari dynasty (1266–1290).
Mehrauli is a neighbourhood in South Delhi, Delhi, India. It represents a constituency in the legislative assembly of Delhi. The area is close to Gurugram and next to Vasant Kunj.
Budaun is a medieval city and headquarters of Budaun district, in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located about a mile east of the Sot river, and 27 km north of the Ganges, in the Rohilkhand region of Uttar Pradesh. According to the 2011 census, it has a population of 159,221, which is projected at 161,555 at present. Budaun rose to historical importance as the capital of the Delhi Sultanate for four years from 1210 CE to 1214 CE during the reign of Sultan Iltutmish. It was the most important post of Northern Frontier during Mughal reign. Budaun is a big market, historically famous and religiously important city. Budaun is 230 km south-east of New Delhi and 245 km north-west of Lucknow, both taking about 6 hours by road.
Hauz Khas Complex in Hauz Khas, South Delhi houses a water tank, an Islamic seminary, a mosque, a tomb, and pavilions built around an urbanized village with medieval history traced to the 13th century of Delhi Sultanate reign. It was part of Siri, the second medieval city of India of the Delhi Sultanate of Alauddin Khalji Dynasty (1296–1316). The etymology of the name Hauz Khas in Persian is derived from the words ‘Hauz’: "water tank" and ‘Khas’:"royal"- the "Royal tank". The large water tank or reservoir was first built by Allauddin Khilji to supply water to the inhabitants of Siri. The tank was de–silted during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–88). Several buildings and tombs were built overlooking the water tank or lake. Firuz Shah's tomb pivots the L–shaped building complex which overlooks the tank.
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh, the development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of the Ghurid dynasty in 1193. Succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi Sultanate, a series of Central Asian dynasties that consolidated much of North, East, and Central India, and later by the Mughal Empire during the early 16th century. Both of these dynasties introduced Islamic architecture and art styles from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent.
Nāṣir ad-Dīn Maḥmūd was the eldest son of the Delhi Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish and his chief consort Turkan Khatun,, the daughter of Qutb ud-Din Aibak. He was, in all probabilities, the full brother of Razia Sultana. He was the governor of Awadh and later served as the governor of Bengal until his death in 1229. Then in 1230 the son of Ali Sher Khalji, Balka Khalji declared himself as independent king of Bengal. Thus in 1231 Iltutmish marched against him and defeated him and made Alauddin Jani as the next governor of Bengal.
Aram Shah was the second sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate. He briefly held the throne from Lahore after the unexpected death of Qutb ud-Din Aibak before being defeated and dethroned by Iltutmish who began ruling from Delhi.
Delhi has been an important political centre of India as the capital of several empires. The recorded history of Delhi begins with the 8th century Tomar Rajput dynasty. It is considered to be a city built, destroyed and rebuilt several times, as outsiders who successfully invaded the Indian subcontinent would ransack the existing capital city in Delhi, and those who came to conquer and stay would be so impressed by the city's strategic location as to make it their capital and rebuild it in their own way.
Sultan Ghari was the first Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) built in 1231 AD for Prince Nasiruddin Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish, in the "funerary landscape of Delhi" in the Nangal Dewat Forest, Near Nangal Dewat Vasant Kunj).
Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments is a book written in Persian by Dr Ali Asghar Hekmat E Shirazi and published in 1956 and 1958 and 2013. New edition contains the Persian texts of more than 200 epigraphical inscriptions found on historical monuments in India, many of which are currently listed as national heritage sites or registered as UNESCO world heritage, published in Persian; an English edition is also being printed.
Tughlaq Tombs in the Indian subcontinent are mostly simple, monotonous and heavy structures in Indo-islamic architecture built during the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413). They look more like fortresses with walls surrounding them and have restrained decoration and embellishment compared to both earlier and later Indian Islamic tombs. Their architecture lacks the influence from Dravidian architecture and craftsmanship which was later found in Lodi and Mughal architecture. But Dravidian architecture influence on Tughlaq buildings was not totally absent. Features of Hindu influences on Tughlaq architecture include the flat lintel instead of pointed arch, pillars, windows with balconies and eaves and railings.
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra is a historical mosque in the city of Ajmer in Rajasthan, India. It is one of the oldest mosques in India, and the oldest surviving monument in Ajmer.
Madrasa of Alauddin Khalji is a madrasa located in the Qutb Minar complex, Mehrauli, Delhi, India. It was built by Alauddin Khalji in 1315, and the tomb attributed to him is located inside the madrasa. This is the first instance of such tomb-madrasa combination in India.
The architecture of Delhi dates back more than a thousand years. As the capital of several empires of India, including the Rajput kingdom, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, and British Raj, the city of Delhi has been a centre for art and architecture.
Turkic peoples have historically been associated as one of the non-native peoples to have ruled areas of the Indian subcontinent. Various dynasties of the later medieval era and early modern era in India were of Turkic and mixed Indian or Afghan descent. Two of the dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate, viz. the Tughlaqs and Khaljis, for instance, were of mixed Turkic origin, with Indian and Afghan ancestry respectively. The terms Indo-Turkic or Turco-Indian is used to refer to people and dynasties of mixed Turkic and Indian descent, as well as the fusion culture formed as a result.
References
Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1996). The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-06465-0.
Harle, James C. (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-06217-5.
Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250: 2nd Edition. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-08869-4.
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