Rhamnus purshiana

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Rhamnus purshiana
Rhamnus purshiana - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-121.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Rosales
Family:
Rhamnaceae
Genus:
Rhamnus
Subgenus:
Frangula
Species:
R. purshiana
Binomial name
Rhamnus purshiana
DC.
Rhamnus purshiana range map.png
Natural range

Frangula purshiana (cascara, cascara buckthorn, cascara sagrada, bearberry, and in the Chinook Jargon, chittem stick and chitticum stick; syn. Rhamnus purshiana, Rhamnus purshianus) is a species of plant in the family Rhamnaceae. It is native to western North America from southern British Columbia south to central California, and eastward to northwestern Montana.

Contents

The dried bark of cascara was used as a laxative in folk medicine by the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest.

Description

Branch of a cascara tree. Note the prominently veined, alternate leaves, the reddish twigs, and the clusters of flowers at the leaf axils. Rhamnus purshiana, Cascara -- branch with leaves, flowers and buds.JPG
Branch of a cascara tree. Note the prominently veined, alternate leaves, the reddish twigs, and the clusters of flowers at the leaf axils.

Cascara is a large shrub or small tree 4.5–10 metres (15′–30′) tall, with a trunk 20–50 cm (8″–20″) in diameter. [1]

The outer bark is brownish to silver-grey with light splotching (often, in part, from lichens) and the inner surface of the bark is smooth and yellowish (turning dark brown with age and/or exposure to sunlight). [2] [3] Cascara bark has an intensely bitter flavor that will remain in the mouth for hours, overpowering the taste buds. [4]

Leaves, flower, and young fruits of R. purshiana Rhamnus purshiana -- leaves and fruits.JPG
Leaves, flower, and young fruits of R. purshiana

The leaves are simple, deciduous, alternate, clustered near the ends of twigs. They are oval, 5–15 cm (2″–6″) long and 2–5 cm (¾″–2″) broad with a 0.6–2 cm (¼″–¾″) petiole, shiny and green on top, and a dull, paler green below; [5] and have tiny teeth on the margins, and parallel veins. [6]

The flowers are tiny, 4–5 mm (⅛″–¼″) diameter, with five greenish yellow petals, forming a cup shape. The flowers bloom in umbel-shaped clusters, on the ends of distinctive peduncles that are attached to the leaf axils. The flowering season is brief, from early to mid- spring, disappearing by early summer. [7] The fruit is a drupe 6–10 mm (¼″-½″) diameter, bright red at first, quickly maturing deep purple or black, and containing a yellow pulp, and two or three hard, smooth, olive-green or black seeds. [8] [9]

Range and habitat

Cascara is native from northern California to British Columbia and east to the Rocky Mountains in Montana. [10] It is often found along streamsides in the mixed deciduous-coniferous forests of valleys, and in moist montane forests. [11] Cascara is common in the understory of bigleaf maple forest, alongside red osier dogwood and red alder. [12]

In many areas, the high market demand for cascara bark has led to over-harvesting from wild trees, which may have heavily reduced cascara populations. [13]

Ecology

It is browsed by mule deer in Oregon and elk in northern Idaho, especially in the winter months. The Olympic black bear, Oregon gray fox, raccoon, and ring-tailed cat also eat Cascara foliage. [14]

The fruit is eaten by birds, bears, raccoons, [15] and other mammals. [16]

Cascara creates brushy stands which provide abundant thermal and hiding cover for wildlife. [14]

Cascara is usually top-killed by fire, but may resprout from the root crown. After more severe fires, it reestablishes via off-site seed beginning the second year after the fire. It typically inhabits areas with fire regime s on 30 to 150 year intervals, although it is also found in areas with fire regimes of 500+ years. [14]

FDA regulation and safety concerns

Until 2002, cascara sagrada was the principal ingredient in commercial, over-the-counter (OTC) laxatives in North American pharmacies until the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule banning the use of aloe and cascara sagrada as laxative ingredients. [17] [18] Serious adverse effects may occur from using cascara, including dehydration, loss of electrolyte levels (such as potassium, sodium, chloride), heart rhythm irregularities, and muscle weakness. [17] [19] There is also concern for its potential carcinogenicity. [20] [21] Laxatives should also not be used by people with Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome, colitis, hemorrhoids, appendicitis, or kidney problems. [22] [23] Use of cascara is a safety concern for pregnant or breastfeeding women, and for children. [17] [19]

Dietary supplement

Cascara is sold in the United States as a dietary supplement and commonly ingested by mouth to relieve constipation. [17] Although it may be safe for use over a few days, there is insufficient scientific evidence to assure its safety and effectiveness. [17] [19] Use of cascara may adversely affect the actions of various prescribed drugs, such as digoxin, warfarin, corticosteroids, and diuretic agents. [17]

Phytochemistry

Numerous quinoid phytochemicals are present in cascara bark. [19] The chemicals possibly contributing to a laxative effect are the hydroxyanthracene glycosides, which include cascarosides A, B, C, and D. [19] Cascara contains approximately 8% anthranoids by mass, of which about two-thirds are cascarosides. [24] The hydroxyanthracene glycosides may trigger peristalsis by inhibiting the absorption of water and electrolytes in the large intestine, which increases the volume of the bowel contents, leading to increased pressure. [17] [19]

The hydroxyanthracene glycosides are not readily absorbed in the small intestine, but are hydrolyzed by intestinal flora to a form that is partly absorbed in the colon.[ citation needed ] Some of the chemical constituents present in the bark may be excreted by the kidneys. [25] The extract from cascara bark also contains emodin, which may contribute to the laxative effect. [26]

Traditional medicine

Bark of cascara - the part of the plant which, after being dried, is used as a laxative Cascara (Rhamnus purshiana) bark.JPG
Bark of cascara – the part of the plant which, after being dried, is used as a laxative

Cascara was used in traditional medicine as a laxative. [17] [19] The dried, aged bark of R. purshiana used by indigenous native peoples and immigrant Euro-Americans as a supposed laxative is based on anthraquinone-containing herbal preparations of leaves and fruits of senna, the latex of Aloe vera , and the root of the rhubarb plant. [27] Commercially, it is called "cascara sagrada" ('sacred bark' in Spanish), while traditionally it is known as "chittem bark" or "chitticum bark". [19] The historical interest in using cascara damaged native cascara populations during the 1900s due to overharvesting. [28]

Preparation in folk medicine

The bark is collected in the spring or early summer, when it easily peels from the tree. [29] Once stripped from the tree, the bark must be aged for many months because fresh cut, dried bark causes vomiting and violent diarrhea. This drying is generally done in the shade to preserve its characteristic yellow color. This process can be quickened by simply baking the bark at a low temperature for several hours. [19] In her book, Major Medicinal Plants, Dr. Julia Morton suggested using a dosage of 10–30  grains, dissolved in water, or 0.6–2 cc for fluid extract. [30] James A. Duke suggested an effective dosage of approximately 1 to 3 grams (15 to 46 gr) dried bark, or 1 to 2.5 grams (15 to 39 gr) powdered bark. [22]

Other uses

The fruit can also be eaten cooked or raw, but has a laxative effect. The food industry sometimes uses cascara as a flavoring agent for liquors, soft drinks, ice cream, and baked goods. [31] [30] [32] Cascara honey is tasty, but slightly laxative. The wood is used by local people for posts, firewood, and turnery. It is also planted as an ornamental, to provide food and habitat for wildlife, or to prevent soil erosion. [31] Due to its bitter taste, cascara can be used to stop nail-biting by applying it to the fingernails. [33]

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This is a list of plants used by the indigenous people of North America. For lists pertaining specifically to the Cherokee, Iroquois, Navajo, and Zuni, see Cherokee ethnobotany, Iroquois ethnobotany, Navajo ethnobotany, and Zuni ethnobotany.

References

  1. ↑ Mahady, Gail B. (2005). "Cascara Sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana)". In Coates, Paul M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements. CRC Press. p. 89. ISBN   9780824755041.
  2. ↑ Henkel, Alice (1909). American medicinal barks. Government Printing Office. p.  39.
  3. ↑ Biddle, John Barclay (1895). Materia medica and therapeutics, for physicians and students. P. Blakiston, Son. p.  360.
  4. ↑ Peattie, Donald C.; Landacre, Paul (1991). A Natural History of Western Trees. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 633. ISBN   9780395581759.
  5. ↑ Stuart, John D.; Sawyer, John O. (2002). Trees and Shrubs of California. University of California Press. p. 474. ISBN   9780520935297.
  6. ↑ Kricher, John C. (1999). Peterson First Guide to Forests. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 119. ISBN   9780395971970.
  7. ↑ Tilford, Gregory L. (1997). Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Publishing. p. 26. ISBN   9780878423590.
  8. ↑ Sudworth, George Bishop (1908). Forest trees of the Pacific slope. United States Forest Service. 11. Government Printing Office. p. 404 – via Google Books.
  9. ↑ Barceloux, Donald G. (2008). "Cascara". Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs, Plants, and Venomous Animals. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1034. ISBN   9781118382769 – via Google Books.
  10. ↑ Minnis, Paul E.; Elisens, Wayne J. (2001). Biodiversity and Native America. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 88. ISBN   9780806133454.
  11. ↑ Phillips, Wayne (2001). Northern Rocky Mountain Wildflowers. Globe Pequot. p. 260. ISBN   9781585920945.
  12. ↑ Buchanan, Carol (1999). The Wildlife Sanctuary Garden. Ten Speed Press (original from the University of Wisconsin – Madison). p. 23. ISBN   9781580080026.
  13. ↑ Tilford, Gregory L. (1997). Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West. Mountain Press Publishing. p. 26. ISBN   9780878423590.
  14. 1 2 3 "Frangula purshiana". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2021-05-06.
  15. ↑ Little, Elbert L. (1994) [1980]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region (Chanticleer Press ed.). Knopf. p. 550. ISBN   0394507614.
  16. ↑ Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p.  389. ISBN   0-394-73127-1.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Cascara". MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine. 9 September 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  18. ↑ "Rulemaking History for OTC Laxative Drug Products". US Food and Drug Administration. 10 July 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2021.CS1 maint: discouraged parameter (link)
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants, Volume 2". World Health Organization. 1 December 2019. p. 259. ISBN   9789241545372 . Retrieved 3 April 2021.CS1 maint: discouraged parameter (link)
  20. ↑ Elvin-Lewis, M (2001). "Should we be concerned about herbal remedies?". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 75: 141–164. doi:10.1016/s0378-8741(00)00394-9. PMID   11297844.
  21. ↑ Small, Ernest; Caitling, Paul M.; National Research Council Canada (1999). Canadian Medicinal Crops. NRC Research Press. p. 129. ISBN   9780660175348.
  22. 1 2 Duke, James A. (2002). The Green Pharmacy Herbal Handbook. Macmillan. p. 84. ISBN   9780312981518.
  23. ↑ "Monograph: Cascara Sagrada". webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2014-09-23.
  24. ↑ Schulz, Volker (2004). Rational Phytotherapy: A Reference Guide for Physicians and Pharmacists. Springer. p.  277. ISBN   9783540408321.
  25. ↑ Mahady, Gail B. (2005). "Cascara Sagrada (Rhamnus purshiana)". In Coates, Paul M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements. CRC Press. p. 90. ISBN   9780824755041.
  26. ↑ Cassileth, Barrie R.; et al. (2010). Herb-Drug Interactions in Oncology. PMPH-USA. p. 146. ISBN   9781607950417.
  27. ↑ Stargrove, M.B.; et al., eds. (2008). Herb, Nutrient, and Drug Interactions: Clinical Implications and Therapeutic Strategies. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 17. ISBN   9780323029643.
  28. ↑ Johnson, Rebecca & Foster, Steve (2008). National Geographic Desk Reference to Nature's Medicine. National Geographic Books. p. 77. ISBN   9781426202933.
  29. ↑ Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses. 1. Courier Dover Publications. p. 137. ISBN   9780486227986.
  30. 1 2 Kowalchik, Claire; et al. (1998). Rodale's Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs. The Rodale Institute. p. 68. ISBN   9780875969640.
  31. 1 2 Small, Ernest; Caitling, Paul M.; National Research Council Canada (1999). Canadian Medicinal Crops. NRC Research Press. p. 130. ISBN   9780660175348.
  32. ↑ Burdock, George A. (2005). Flavor ingredients. CRC Press. p. 271. ISBN   9780849330346.
  33. ↑ Small, Ernest; Caitling, Paul M.; National Research Council Canada (1999). Canadian Medicinal Crops. NRC Research Press. p. 131. ISBN   9780660175348.
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