SNAP-10A

Last updated

SNAP-10A (SNAPSHOT)
SNAP 10A Space Nuclear Power Plant.jpg
Image of SNAP 10A Space Nuclear Power Plant
Mission type Engineering
Operator USAF
COSPAR ID 1965-027A OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
SATCAT no. 01314 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Mission duration59 years, 2 months, 21 days (in orbit)
Spacecraft properties
Manufacturer Atomics International
Launch mass440 kg (970 lb)
Start of mission
Launch date3 April 1965, 21:25 (1965-04-03UTC21:25)
Rocket Atlas-Agena D
Launch site Vandenberg AFB, PALC2-4 [1]
End of mission
Last contactMay 16, 1965
Decay dateApril 3, 5966 (planned)
Orbital parameters
Reference system Geocentric
Regime Low Earth
Eccentricity 0.00319
Perigee altitude 1,268 km (788 mi)
Apogee altitude 1,317 km (818 mi)
Inclination 90.2°
Period 111.4 minutes [2]
Epoch 3 April 1965
Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power
←  SNAP-9A
SNAP-11  →
 

SNAP-10A (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power, [3] aka Snapshot for Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power Shot, also known as OPS 4682 [4] ) was a US experimental nuclear powered satellite launched into space in 1965 [5] as part of the SNAPSHOT program. [6] [4] The test marked both the world's first operation of a nuclear reactor in orbit, [7] [8] and the first operation of an ion thruster system in orbit. It is the only fission reactor power system launched into space by the United States. [9] The reactor stopped working after just 43 days due to a non-nuclear electrical component failure. [10] The Systems Nuclear Auxiliary Power Program reactor was specifically developed for satellite use in the 1950s and early 1960s under the supervision of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. [11] [12]

Contents

History

The Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP) program developed as a result of Project Feedback, a Rand Corporation study of reconnaissance satellites completed in 1954. [13] As some of the proposed satellites had high power demands, some as high as a few kilowatts, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) requested a series of nuclear power-plant studies from industry in 1951. Completed in 1952, these studies determined that nuclear power plants were technically feasible for use on satellites. [14] : 5 

In 1955, the AEC began two parallel SNAP nuclear power projects. One, contracted with The Martin Company, used radio-isotopic decay as the power source for its generators. These plants were given odd-numbered SNAP designations beginning with SNAP-1. The other project used nuclear reactors to generate energy, and was developed by the Atomics International Division of North American Aviation. Their systems were given even-numbered SNAP designations, the first being SNAP-2. [14] : 5 

SNAP-10A was the first Atomics International, nuclear-reactor power system built for use in space. Evolved from the SNAP-10 300 watt design, SNAP-10A fulfilled a 1961 Department of Defense requirement for a 500 watt system. [14] : 5, 7 

Most of the systems development and reactor testing was conducted at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory, Ventura County, California using a number of specialized facilities. [15]

Construction

The SNAP-10A has three major components – (1) a compact fission reactor that generates heat, (2) an energy converter that transforms some of the heat into electricity, and (3) a radiator that radiates away heat that cannot be used. [14]

The reactor measures 39.62 cm (15.6 in) long, 22.4 cm (8.8 in) diameter and holds 37 fuel rods containing 235U as uranium-zirconium-hydride fuel. [16] The SNAP-10A reactor was designed for a thermal power output of 30 kW and unshielded weighs 650 lb (290 kg). The reactor can be identified at the top of the SNAP-10A unit. [17]

Reflectors were arranged around the outside of the reactor to provide the means to control the reactor. The reflectors were composed of a layer of beryllium, which would reflect neutrons, thus allowing the reactor to begin and maintain the fission process. The reflectors were held in place by a retaining band anchored by an explosive bolt. When the reflector was ejected from the unit, the reactor could not sustain the nuclear fission reaction and the reactor permanently shut down.[ citation needed ]

The eutectic sodium-potassium (NaK) alloy was used as a coolant in the SNAP-10A. The NaK was circulated through the core and thermoelectric converters by a liquid metal direct current conduction-type pump. The thermoelectric converters (identified as the long white "apron") are doped silicon germanium materials, thermally coupled, but electrically isolated from the NaK heat transfer medium. The temperature difference between the NaK on one side of the thermoelectric converter and the cold of space on the other created an electric potential and usable electricity. [18]

SNAPSHOT mission

Launch and orbital operation

SNAP-10A was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base by an ATLAS Agena D rocket on 3 April 1965 into a low Earth orbit altitude of approx. 1,300 km. It is in a slightly retrograde polar orbit [19] — this ensured that the spent rocket stages landed in the ocean. Its nuclear electrical source, made up of thermoelectric elements, was intended to produce over 500 watts of electrical power for one year. [20] [21] After 43 days, an onboard voltage regulator within the spacecraft – unrelated to the SNAP reactor – failed, causing the reactor core to be shut down, after reaching a maximum output of 590 watts. [16] [22]

After the 1965 system failure, the reactor was left in a 1,300-kilometre (700 nmi) Earth orbit for an expected duration of 4,000 years. [11] [23] [24]

In November 1979 the vehicle began shedding, eventually losing 50 pieces of traceable debris. The reasons were unknown, but the cause could have been a collision. Although the main body remains in place, radioactive material may have been released. Later research, published in 2008 and based on Haystack data, suggests that there are another 60 or more pieces of debris of size <10 cm. [22] [25]

Ion propulsion

The SNAPSHOT test included a cesium ion thruster as a secondary payload, the first test of an electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system to operate in orbit (following the SERT-1 suborbital test in 1964). The ion-beam power supply was operated at 4500 V and 80 mA to produce a thrust of about 8.5 mN. [6] The ion engine was to be operated off batteries for about one hour, and then the batteries were to be charged for approximately 15 hours using 0.1 kW of the nominal 0.5 kW SNAP system as the power supply. The ion engine operated for a period of less than 1 hour before being commanded off permanently. Analysis of flight data indicated a significant number of high-voltage breakdowns, and this apparently caused electromagnetic interference (EMI), causing attitude perturbations of the spacecraft. Ground tests indicated that the engine arcing produced conducted and radiated EMI significantly above design levels.[ citation needed ]

Safety

The SNAP reactor program necessitated a safety program and led to the inception of the Aerospace Nuclear Safety Program. The program was established to evaluate the nuclear hazards associated with the construction, launch, operation and disposal of SNAP systems and to develop designs to assure their radiological safety.[ citation needed ]

Atomics International had primary responsibility for safety, while Sandia National Laboratories was responsible for the Aerospace Safety Independent Review and conducted many of the safety tests. Before launch was permitted, proof had to be obtained that under all circumstances the launch of the reactor would not pose a serious threat.[ citation needed ]

A variety of tests were successfully completed and several videos of the development and tests are available for viewing. [26] The Idaho National Laboratory conducted three destructive tests of SNAP nuclear reactors at Test Area North prior to the launch of SNAP-10A. [27] The SNAPTRAN-3 destructive experiment, on 1 April 1964, simulated a rocket crash into the ocean, purposely sending radioactive debris across the Idaho desert.

The testing and development involving radioactive materials caused environmental contamination at the former Atomics International Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL) facilities. The United States Department of Energy is responsible for the identification and cleanup of the radioactive contamination. (The SSFL was also used for the unrelated testing and development of rocket engines by Rocketdyne primarily for NASA.) The DOE website supporting the site cleanup [28] details the historical development of nuclear energy at SSFL including additional SNAP testing and development information.

Atomics International also developed and tested other compact nuclear reactors including the SNAP Experimental Reactor (SER), SNAP-2, SNAP-8 Developmental Reactor (SNAP8-DR) and SNAP-8 Experimental Reactor (SNAP-8ER) units at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory (see Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power article). Atomics International also built and operated the Sodium Reactor Experiment, the first U.S. nuclear power plant to supply electricity to a public power system. [29] [30]

As of 2010, more than 30 small fission power system nuclear reactors have been sent into space in Soviet RORSAT satellites; also, over 40 radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been used globally (principally US and USSR) on space missions. [11]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear thermal rocket</span> Rocket engine that uses a nuclear reactor to generate thrust

A nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) is a type of thermal rocket where the heat from a nuclear reaction replaces the chemical energy of the propellants in a chemical rocket. In an NTR, a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature in a nuclear reactor and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. The external nuclear heat source theoretically allows a higher effective exhaust velocity and is expected to double or triple payload capacity compared to chemical propellants that store energy internally.

A nuclear electric rocket is a type of spacecraft propulsion system where thermal energy from a nuclear reactor is converted to electrical energy, which is used to drive an ion thruster or other electrical spacecraft propulsion technology. The nuclear electric rocket terminology is slightly inconsistent, as technically the "rocket" part of the propulsion system is non-nuclear and could also be driven by solar panels. This is in contrast with a nuclear thermal rocket, which directly uses reactor heat to add energy to a working fluid, which is then expelled out of a rocket nozzle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</span> Electrical generator that uses heat from radioactive decay

A radioisotope thermoelectric generator, sometimes referred to as a radioisotope power system (RPS), is a type of nuclear battery that uses an array of thermocouples to convert the heat released by the decay of a suitable radioactive material into electricity by the Seebeck effect. This type of generator has no moving parts and is ideal for deployment in remote and harsh environments for extended periods with no risk of parts wearing out or malfunctioning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium–potassium alloy</span> Chemical compound

Sodium–potassium alloy, colloquially called NaK, is an alloy of the alkali metals sodium and potassium that is normally liquid at room temperature. Various commercial grades are available. NaK is highly reactive with water and may catch fire when exposed to air, so must be handled with special precautions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear propulsion</span> Nuclear power to propel a vehicle

Nuclear propulsion includes a wide variety of propulsion methods that use some form of nuclear reaction as their primary power source. The idea of using nuclear material for propulsion dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. In 1903 it was hypothesized that radioactive material, radium, might be a suitable fuel for engines to propel cars, planes, and boats. H. G. Wells picked up this idea in his 1914 fiction work The World Set Free. Many aircraft carriers and submarines currently use uranium fueled nuclear reactors that can provide propulsion for long periods without refueling. There are also applications in the space sector with nuclear thermal and nuclear electric engines which could be more efficient than conventional rocket engines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">US-A</span> Soviet nuclear-powered surveillance satellite

Upravlyaemy Sputnik Aktivnyy, or US-A, also known in the west as Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satellite or RORSAT, was a series of 33 Soviet reconnaissance satellites. Launched between 1967 and 1988 to monitor NATO and merchant vessels using radar, the satellites were powered by nuclear reactors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Project Prometheus</span> NASA nuclear electric propulsion project 2003-2006

Project Prometheus was established in 2003 by NASA to develop nuclear-powered systems for long-duration space missions. This was NASA's first serious foray into nuclear spacecraft propulsion since the cancellation of the SNTP project in 1995. The project was planned to design, develop, and fly multiple deep space missions to the outer planets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Santa Susana Field Laboratory</span> Industrial research and development facilities in California

The Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), formerly known as Rocketdyne, is a complex of industrial research and development facilities located on a 2,668-acre (1,080 ha) portion of Southern California in an unincorporated area of Ventura County in the Simi Hills between Simi Valley and Los Angeles. The site is located approximately 18 miles (29 km) northwest of Hollywood and approximately 30 miles (48 km) northwest of Downtown Los Angeles. Sage Ranch Park is adjacent on part of the northern boundary and the community of Bell Canyon is along the entire southern boundary.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plutonium-238</span> Isotope of plutonium used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators

Plutonium-238 is a radioactive isotope of plutonium that has a half-life of 87.7 years.

The Systems Nuclear Auxiliary POWER (SNAP) program was a program of experimental radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and space nuclear reactors flown during the 1960s by NASA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy Technology Engineering Center</span>

The Energy Technology Engineering Center (ETEC), was a government-owned, contractor-operated complex of industrial facilities located within the 2,850-acre (11.5 km2) Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), Ventura County, California. The ETEC specialized in non-nuclear testing of components which were designed to transfer heat from a nuclear reactor using liquid metals instead of water or gas. The center operated from 1966 to 1998. The ETEC site has been closed and is now undergoing building removal and environmental remediation by the U.S. Department of Energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romashka reactor</span>

The Romashka reactor was a Soviet experimental nuclear reactor. It began operation in 1964, and was developed by the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy. The reactor used direct thermoelectric conversion to create electricity, rather than heating water to drive a turbine. It is thus similar to a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, but higher power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SP-100</span>

SP-100 was a U.S. research program for nuclear fission reactors usable as small fission power systems for spacecraft. It was started in 1983 by NASA, the US Department of Energy and other agencies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium Reactor Experiment</span> Decommissioned nuclear power plant in California

The Sodium Reactor Experiment was a pioneering nuclear power plant built by Atomics International at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory near Simi Valley, California. The reactor operated from 1957 to 1964. On July 12, 1957 the Sodium Reactor Experiment became the first nuclear reactor in California to produce electrical power for a commercial power grid by powering the nearby city of Moorpark. In July 1959, the reactor experienced a partial meltdown when 13 of the reactor's 43 fuel elements partially melted, and a controlled release of radioactive gas into the atmosphere occurred. The reactor was repaired and restarted in September 1960. In February 1964, the Sodium Reactor Experiment was in operation for the last time. Removal of the deactivated reactor was completed in 1981. Technical analyses of the 1959 incident have produced contrasting conclusions regarding the types and quantities of radioactive materials released. Members of the neighboring communities have expressed concerns about the possible impacts on their health and environment from the incident. In August 2009, 50 years after the occurrence, the Department of Energy hosted a community workshop to discuss the 1959 incident.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator</span> Nuclear thermal source whose heat is converted into electricity

The multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG) is a type of radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) developed for NASA space missions such as the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Energy's Office of Space and Defense Power Systems within the Office of Nuclear Energy. The MMRTG was developed by an industry team of Aerojet Rocketdyne and Teledyne Energy Systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomics International</span> Defunct US nuclear technology company

Atomics International was a division of the North American Aviation company which engaged principally in the early development of nuclear technology and nuclear reactors for both commercial and government applications. Atomics International was responsible for a number of accomplishments relating to nuclear energy: design, construction and operation of the first nuclear reactor in California (1952), the first nuclear reactor to produce power for a commercial power grid in the United States (1957) and the first nuclear reactor launched into outer space by the United States (1965).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear power in space</span> Space exploration using nuclear energy

Nuclear power in space is the use of nuclear power in outer space, typically either small fission systems or radioactive decay for electricity or heat. Another use is for scientific observation, as in a Mössbauer spectrometer. The most common type is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, which has been used on many space probes and on crewed lunar missions. Small fission reactors for Earth observation satellites, such as the TOPAZ nuclear reactor, have also been flown. A radioisotope heater unit is powered by radioactive decay and can keep components from becoming too cold to function, potentially over a span of decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BES-5</span> Soviet small nuclear reactor used in satellites

BES-5, also known as Bouk or Buk, was a Soviet thermoelectric generator that was used to power 31 satellites in the US-A (RORSAT) project. The heat source was a uranium 235 fast fission nuclear reactor (FNR).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kilopower</span> NASA project aimed at producing a nuclear reactor for space

Kilopower is an experimental U.S. project to make new nuclear reactors for space travel. The project started in October 2015, led by NASA and the DoE’s National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA). As of 2017, the Kilopower reactors were intended to come in four sizes, able to produce from one to ten kilowatts of electrical power (1–10 kWe) continuously for twelve to fifteen years. The fission reactor uses uranium-235 to generate heat that is carried to the Stirling converters with passive sodium heat pipes. In 2018, positive test results for the Kilopower Reactor Using Stirling Technology (KRUSTY) demonstration reactor were announced.

References

  1. ↑ McDowell, Jonathan. "Launch Log". Jonathon's Space Report. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  2. ↑ "Snapshot". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  3. ↑ "News In Brief: Nuclear Reactor For Space". The Canberra Times . Vol. 36, no. 10, 203. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 18 April 1962. p. 3. Retrieved 12 August 2017– via National Library of Australia., ...the reactor would "be known as "Snaps 10a" for "Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power"...
  4. 1 2 Snapshot, Gunther's Space Page. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  5. ↑ "Reactor goes into space". The Canberra Times . Vol. 39, no. 11, 122. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 5 April 1965. p. 1. Retrieved 12 August 2017– via National Library of Australia.
  6. 1 2 SNAPSHOT, NASA Glenn Research Center, March 20, 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  7. ↑ "History of US Astronuclear Reactors part 1: SNAP-2 and 10A", Beyond NERVA, April 3, 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  8. ↑ Andrew LePage, "The First Nuclear Reactor in Orbit", Drew Ex Machina, April 3, 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  9. ↑ NASA Utilization of Space Nuclear Systems for Robotic and Human Exploration Missions (PDF) (Report). NASA. July 2022. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
  10. ↑ Nuclear Reactors for Space , Briefing Paper # 82, January 2004
  11. 1 2 3 Mason L, Bailey S, Bechtel R, Elliott J, Fleurial JP, Houts M, Kapernick R, Lipinski R, MacPherson D, Moreno T, Nesmith B, Poston D, Qualls L, Radel R, Weitzberg A, Werner J (18 November 2010). "Small Fission Power System Feasibility Study – Final Report". NASA/DOE . Retrieved 3 October 2015. Space Nuclear Power: Since 1961 the U.S. has flown more than 40 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) with an essentially perfect operational record. The specifics of these RTGs and the missions they have powered have been thoroughly reviewed in the open literature. The U.S. has flown only one reactor, which is described below. The Soviet Union has flown only 2 RTGs and had shown a preference to use small fission power systems instead of RTGs. The USSR had a more aggressive space fission power program than the U.S. and flew more than 30 reactors. Although these were designed for short lifetime, the program demonstrated the successful use of common designs and technology.
  12. ↑ Lords, R. E. (August 1994), SNAP and AI Fuel Summary Report, Westinghouse Idaho Nuclear Company, Inc., doi: 10.2172/10182034 , OSTI   10182034, WINCO-1222, UC-510
  13. ↑ J. E. Lipp; Robert M. Salter (March 1954). "Project Feedback Summary Report Volume I". RAND. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  14. 1 2 3 4 William R. Corliss (1966). SNAP NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission/Division of Technical Information.
  15. ↑ "SNAP Overview". U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  16. 1 2 Schmidt, Glen (February 2011). "SNAP Overview – general background" (PDF). American Nuclear Society . Retrieved 27 August 2012.
  17. ↑ Voss, Susan (August 1984). SNAP Reactor Overview (PDF). Kirtland AFB, New Mexico: U.S. Air Force Weapons Laboratory. AFWL-TN-84-14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2018.
  18. ↑ Schmidt, G.L. (September 1988). SNAP 10A Test Program. Rockwell International, Canoga Park, California. DCN: SP-100-XT-0002.
  19. ↑ "Snapshot – Orbit". www.heavens-above.com. Retrieved 15 June 2016. Inclination: 90,3084° – an object with an inclination between 90 and 180 degrees is in a retrograde orbit.
  20. ↑ "SNAP Overview". USDOE ETEC. Archived from the original on 15 February 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
  21. ↑ Bennett, Gary L. (2006). "Space Nuclear Power: Opening the Final Frontier" (PDF). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 17. Retrieved 3 April 2010.
  22. 1 2 Portree, David S. F; Loftus, Jr., Joseph P. (January 1999). "Orbital Debris: A Chronology" (PDF). NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N. 99. NASA: 29–31. Bibcode:1999STIN...9941786P. TP-1999-208856. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2000.
  23. ↑ Staub, D.W. (25 March 1967). SNAP 10 Summary Report. Atomics International Division of North American Aviation, Inc., Canoga Park, California. NAA-SR-12073.
  24. ↑ "U.S. ADMISSION : Satellite mishap released rays". The Canberra Times . Vol. 52, no. 15, 547. Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 30 March 1978. p. 5. Retrieved 12 August 2017– via National Library of Australia., ...Launched in 1965 and carrying about 4.5 kilograms of uranium 235, Snap 10A is in a 1,000-year orbit....
  25. ↑ Stokely, C.; Stansbury, E. (2008), "Identification of a debris cloud from the nuclear powered SNAPSHOT satellite with Haystack radar measurements", Advances in Space Research, vol. 41, no. 7, pp. 1004–1009, Bibcode:2008AdSpR..41.1004S, doi:10.1016/j.asr.2007.03.046, hdl: 2060/20060028182
  26. ↑ "ETEC - Videos". Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
  27. ↑ Stacy, Susan M. (2000). Proving the Principle: A History of The Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, 1949–1999 (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office. ISBN   978-0-16-059185-3. Chapter 17: Science in the Desert.
  28. ↑ "U.S. DOE Nuclear Energy Development at SSFL". Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
  29. ↑ "ETEC - Department of Energy ETEC Closure Project". www.etec.energy.gov. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  30. ↑ "Atomics International". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 48 (9): 100A. September 1956. doi:10.1021/i651400a779. ISSN   0019-7866.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.