Siege of Damascus (1148)

Last updated

Siege of Damascus
Part of the Second Crusade
Siege of Damascus, second crusade.jpg
Siege of Damascus, miniature by Jean Colombe from Sébastien Mamerot's book " Passages d'outremer " (1474)
Date24–28 July 1148
Location
Damascus
33°30′23″N36°18′55″E / 33.5065°N 36.3154°E / 33.5065; 36.3154
Result

Muslim victory

  • Crusader withdrawal due to poor logistics and dispute over the city's fate
Belligerents

Crusaders:

Muslim forces:

Supported by:

Commanders and leaders
Baldwin III
Everard des Barres
Raymond du Puy
Conrad III
Frederick of Swabia
Louis VII
Thierry, Count of Flanders

Mu'in ad-Din Unur Supported by:

Saif ad-Din Ghazi I
Nur ad-Din Zangi
Strength
50,000 troops [1] Unknown
Casualties and losses
Heavy Unknown

The siege of Damascus took place between 24 and 28 July 1148, during the Second Crusade. It ended in a crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade. The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux's call for the Second Crusade were led by Kings Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed, with most of their armies being destroyed. The original focus of the crusade was Edessa (Urfa), but in Jerusalem, the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus. At the Council of Acre, magnates from France, Germany, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem decided to divert the crusade to Damascus.

Contents

The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west, where orchards of Ghouta would provide them with a constant food supply. Having arrived outside the walls of the city, they immediately put it to siege, using wood from the orchards. On 27 July, the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city, which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water. Afterwards, the local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege, and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city. The entire crusader army retreated back to Jerusalem by 28 July.

Background

The first hostile act between the Crusaders and the Burid rulers of Damascus was in form of raids in 1125, followed by the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in 1126, when the Crusaders defeated the Muslim army in the field but failed in their objective to capture Damascus. [2] In 1129, they attacked Damascus again, when they camped near the Wooden Bridge (Jisr al-Khashab) at Dārayyā southwest of the city, but their siege of the city was unsuccessful, after their foraging expedition south into the Hauran was defeated, [3] in addition to inability to advance due to a sudden thunderstorm and the ensuing fog, [3] meanwhile, according to Michael the Syrian, who may be relying on the lost contemporary chronicle of Basil bar Shumna, Damascus paid 20,000 dinars and offered annual tribute in return for the crusaders' withdrawal. [4] However, the crusaders managed to take Banias instead.

In 1140, Mu'in ad-Din Unur visited King Fulk in Jerusalem, following his assistance during Imad ad-Din Zengi's aggression against Damascus, [5] he also handed Banias to the Crusader realm once more.

In 1147, Baldwin III marched with his army to capture Bosra, south of Damascus, after an invitation from Altuntash, the emir of Bosra and Salkhad who squabbled with his nominal superior, Mu'in ad-Din Unur, ruler of Damascus. When they arrived at Bosra, the Crusaders' high hopes were dashed to capture it when they found that Altuntash's wife, made of sterner stuff than her husband, had introduced a Damascene garrison into Bosra's citadel. Unwilling to chance a siege close to an enemy host, Baldwin elected to withdraw. [6]

Second Crusade

Crusaders intended for Edessa, seen here on the right of this map (c.1140), were diverted by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem to Damascus. Asia Minor and the States of the Crusaders.svg
Crusaders intended for Edessa, seen here on the right of this map (c.1140), were diverted by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem to Damascus.

The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux's call for the Second Crusade were led by Kings Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. Conrad's force included Dukes Bolesław IV of Poland and Vladislaus II of Bohemia,(who halted his march at Constantinople and subsequently returned) as well as his nephew Frederick Barbarossa of Swabia. [7] The crusade had been called after the fall of the County of Edessa on 24 December 1144. The crusaders marched across Europe and arrived at Constantinople in September and October 1147. [8]

Both Louis and Conrad faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed, and most of their armies were destroyed. Louis abandoned his troops and travelled by ship to the Principality of Antioch, where his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine's uncle, Raymond, was prince. Raymond expected him to offer military assistance against the Seljuk Turks threatening the principality, but Louis refused and went to Jerusalem to fulfill his crusader vow. [9] Conrad, stricken by illness, had earlier returned to Constantinople, but arrived in Jerusalem a few weeks later in early April 1148. [10] The original focus of the crusade was Edessa, but in Jerusalem, the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus. [9]

King Stephen of England did not participate in the second crusade due to internal conflicts. [11] Meanwhile, King David I of Scotland was dissuaded by his subjects from joining the crusade himself. [12]

Council of Acre

The Council of Acre was called with the High Court of Jerusalem at Acre on 24 June. This was the most spectacular meeting of the High Court in its existence: King Conrad, Bishop Otto of Freising, Duke Henry II of Austria, Margrave Welf VI of Tuscany, Duke Frederick Barbarossa of Swabia, and Marquess William V of Montferrat represented the Holy Roman Empire. [13] King Louis, Count Thierry of Flanders, and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords represented the French. From Jerusalem King Baldwin, Queen Melisende, Patriarch Fulk, Robert de Craon (master of the Knights Templar), Raymond du Puy de Provence (master of the Knights Hospitaller), Manasses of Hierges (constable of Jerusalem), Humphrey II of Toron, Philip of Milly, Walter I Grenier, and Barisan of Ibelin were among those present. [a] Notably, no one from Antioch, Tripoli, or the former County of Edessa attended. Both Louis and Conrad were persuaded to attack Damascus. [8]

Some of the barons native to Jerusalem pointed out that it would be unwise to attack Damascus, as the Burid dynasty, though Muslim, were their allies against the Zengid dynasty. Imad ad-Din Zengi had besieged the city in 1140, and Mu'in ad-Din Unur, a Mamluk acting as vizier for the young Mujir ad-Din Abaq, negotiated an alliance with Jerusalem through the chronicler Usama ibn Munqidh. Conrad, Louis, and Baldwin insisted that Damascus was a holy city for Christianity. Like Jerusalem and Antioch, it would be a noteworthy prize in the eyes of European Christians. In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus, around the Sea of Galilee by way of Banias. There were perhaps 50,000 troops in total. [1]

The general view now appears to be that the decision to attack Damascus was somewhat inevitable. Historians, such as Martin Hoch, regard the decision as the logical outcome of Damascene's foreign policy shifting into alignment with the Zengid dynasty. King Baldwin III had previously launched a campaign with the sole objective of capturing the city. This damaged the Burid dynasty's relations with the Kingdom of Jerusalem. [15]

Fiasco at Damascus

Crusaders besieging Damascus Crusaders besieging Damascus - Chronique d'Ernoul et de Bernard le Tresorier (late 15th C), f.280v - BL Royal MS 15 E I.jpg
Crusaders besieging Damascus

The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west, where orchards of Ghouta would provide them with a constant food supply. [8] They arrived at Darayya on 23 July, with the army of Jerusalem in the vanguard, followed by Louis and then Conrad in the rearguard. The densely cultivated gardens and orchards would prove to be a serious obstacle for the crusaders. [16] According to William of Tyre, the crusader army was prepared for battle:

At Daria [Darayya], since the city was now so near, the sovereigns drew up their forces in battle formation and assigned the legions to their proper places in the order of march...Because of its supposed familiarity with the country, the division led by the King of Jerusalem was, by common decision of the princes, directed to lead the way and open a path for the legions following. The King of the Franks [Louis VII] and his army was assigned the second place or center that they might aid those ahead if the need arose. By the same authority, the Emperor [Konrad III] was to hold the third or rear position, in readiness to resist the enemy if, perchance an attack should be made from behind. [17]

24 July

Crusader King Conrad III in a 13th-century miniature Konrad III Miniatur 13 Jahrhundert.jpg
Crusader King Conrad III in a 13th-century miniature

On Saturday 24 July, the crusaders began with an attack in the morning along the banks of the Barada river, [18] as far as al-Rabweh. The Muslims were well prepared and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus. These orchards were defended by towers and walls and the crusaders were constantly pelted with arrows and lances along the narrow paths. [9] There was a ferocious combat (pl) in the orchards and narrow roads at Mezzeh, [19] between the Christian force and a mixture of professional troops of Damascus, the ahdath militia and Turkoman mercenaries. [18] William of Tyre reported:

The cavalry forces of the townsmen and those who had come to their assistance realized that our army was coming through the orchards in order to besiege the city and they accordingly approached the stream which flowed into the town. This they did with their bows and their balistas [crossbows] so that they could fight off the Latin army...The emperor [Konrad], in command of the forces following, demanded to know why the army did not advance. He was told the enemy was in possession of the river and would not allow our forces to pass. Enraged at this news, Konrad and his knights galloped swiftly forward through the king's lines and reached the fighters who were trying to win the river. Here all leaped down from their horses and become foot soldiers, as is the custom of the Teutons when a desperate crisis occurs. [20]

The historian David Nicolle wrote that William of Tyre did not explain how Conrad was able to bring his forces up from the rear to the front without totally disorganizing the Christian army. [18] Thanks to a charge by Conrad, the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back across the Barada river and into Damascus, [21] [b] in which fortifications were installed to cut off any possible supplies to Damascus from the Beqaa Valley. [23]

In the meantime, according to Syrian chronicler Abu Shama:

Despite the multitude of ahdath [militia], Turks, and common people of the town, volunteers and soldiers who had come from the provinces and had joined with them, the Muslims were overwhelmed by the enemy's numbers and were defeated by the infidels. The latter crossed the river, found themselves in the gardens and made camp there...The Franks...cut down trees to make palisades. They destroyed the orchards and passed the night in these tasks. [21]

Having arrived outside the walls of the city, the crusaders immediately put it to siege, using wood from the orchards. They attacked the suburbs of Faradis at first, [23] they also began to build their siege position opposite Bab al-Jabiya, where the Barada did not run past Damascus. [21] Inside the city the inhabitants barricaded the major streets, preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable assault. [9] Unur had sought help from Saif ad-Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad-Din Zangi of Aleppo, and led an attack on the crusader camp; the crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards, where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks. [24]

25 July

During the counter-attack on Sunday, 25 July, the Damascus forces took heavy losses which included the 71-year-old lawyer and well known scholar named Yusuf al-Findalawi, the Sufi mystic Al-Halhli and emir of Baalbek, Nur ad-Din Shahanshah, elder brother of Saladin. [25] [24] By the end of 25 July, the crusaders set up a camp on the Green Field (Maydan al-Akhdar in modern-day Baramkeh), which was a grassy area used by the Damascene cavalry as a training ground. [23]

26 July

The defenders launched an attack to the north of Damascus to repel the attackers, despite heavy fighting, they managed to clear the area and receive reinforcements from Lebanon and Saif ad-Din on 26 July onward, [23] including archers from the Beqaa Valley which increased the number of defenders and doubled their supply of arms, according to Ibn al-Qalanisi. [26] During a raid on the crusader camp on 26 July, according to Abu Shama:

A large group of inhabitants and villagers...put to flight all the sentries, killed them, without fear of danger, taking the heads of all the enemy they killed and wanting to touch these trophies. The numbers of heads they gathered was considerable. [27]

27 July

The crusaders probably intended to concentrate on the eastern and southern edge of the city, by attacking the weakest of the gates, Bab al-Saghir (Small Gate), built only of mud bricks. [23] In the late afternoon, King Louis asked his senior lieutenant Godefroy de la Roche Vanneau to assess the defenses of the south and southeastern walls. [24] According to William of Tyre, on 27 July, the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city, opposite Bab Tuma and Bab Sharqi, which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water. [8]

There were conflicts in both camps: Unur could not trust Saif ad-Din or Nur ad-Din not to conquer the city if their offer of help was accepted; and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it. Guy I Brisebarre, lord of Beirut, was the suggestion of the local barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders, wanted it for himself and was supported by Baldwin, Louis, and Conrad. According to William of Tyre, the resulting dispute contributed to the final failure of the siege: 'for the local barons preferred that the Damascenes should keep their city rather than to see it given to the count', and so did all they could to ensure the siege collapsed. [28] [c] It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position, and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad-Din if the crusaders went home. [9]

28 July

Nur ad-Din and Saif ad-Din had by now arrived at Homs and were negotiating with Unur for possession of Damascus, something that neither Unur nor the crusaders wanted. Saif ad-Din apparently also wrote to the crusaders, urging them to return home. With Nur ad-Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position. [9] The local Crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege, and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city. [8] First Conrad, then the rest of the army, decided to retreat back to Jerusalem on 28 July, though throughout their retreat they were followed by Muslim archers who constantly harassed them. [31] Historians such as Ralph of Coggeshall, John of Salisbury and the annalist of Würzburg reported that the siege was abandoned when the Templars accepted a bribe, while William of Tyre and Michael the Syrian mentioned that the given coins were made of copper instead of gold. [32] [33] [d]

English historian Henry of Huntingdon summed up the whole expedition, by writing:

1148. In this year, the armies of the Emperor of Germany and the King of France were annihilated. though … they had commenced their march under the greatest leaders and in the proudest confidence. But God despised them … for they abandoned themselves to open fornication … to robbery and every sort of wickedness. First they were starved by famine, through the false conduct of the Emperor of Constantinople, and afterwards were destroyed by the enemy's sword. King Louis and the emperor took refuge, at Antioch, and afterwards in Jerusalem with the remnant of their followers. And the French king, wishing to do something to restore his reputation, laid siege to Damascus with the aid of the Knights Templars of Jerusalem, and a force drawn from all quarters. But lacking the favor of God, and therefore having no success, he returned to France.

—  [35]

Aftermath

Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated by the failure. Heiligenkreuz.Bernard of Clervaux.jpg
Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated by the failure.

Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other. [8] A new plan was made to attack Ascalon but this was abandoned due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege. This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. Following the battle, Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel I Komnenos. As a result of the attack, Damascus no longer trusted the crusaders, and the city was formally handed over to Nur ad-Din in 1154. Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated, and when his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether. [36] [37]

Legacy

The French Crusader Robert de Brie, who took part in the Siege of Damascus in 1148, is sometimes credited for bringing the Damask rose from Syria to Europe. [38] The Crusaders carved the fleur-de-lis on a stone outside Bab Sharqi, in addition to scattering coins in a ditch there. [39]

During the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, the French built Mezzeh prison in 1920s, on a hill-top structure that dates back to crusader days, and used it to house anti-colonial fighters and political prisoners. [40]

Notes

  1. ↑ William of Tyre wrote "it seems well worth while and quite in harmony with the present history that the names of the nobles who were present at the council...should be recorded here for the benefit of posterity." He lists these and numerous others; "to name each one individually would take far too long." [14]
  2. ↑ According to William of Tyre: "During this engagement, the emperor [Conrad] is reported to have performed a memorable feat. He is said to have slain in a most remarkable way a Turkish knight who was making a strenuous and courageous resistance. With one blow of the sword, he severed from the body of his enemy, the head and neck, the left shoulder with the arm attached, and also a part of the side, despite the fact that the foe was wearing a cuirass. This indeed caused such terror, not only to those citizens who witnessed the feat but even to those who merely heard the story from others, that they lost all hope of resisting and despaired even of life itself." [22]
  3. ↑ In a similar situation, Thierry of Alsace participated in Baldwin III's siege of Shaizar in 1157, [29] but the fortress remained in Muslim hands when a dispute arose between Thierry and Raynald of Châtillon over who would possess it should it be captured. [30]
  4. ↑ Waleran de Beaumont was among who received criticism for their role during the Siege of Damascus. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Jerusalem</span> Christian state in the Levant (1099–1291)

The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was a Crusader state that was established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099 until the fall of Acre in 1291. Its history is divided into two periods with a brief interruption in its existence, beginning with its collapse after the siege of Jerusalem in 1187 and its restoration after the Third Crusade in 1192.

The 1140s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1140, and ended on December 31, 1149.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1147</span> Calendar year

Year 1147 (MCXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1148</span> Calendar year

Year 1148 (MCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1149</span> Calendar year

Year 1149 (MCXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Second Crusade</span> 1147–1149 European Christian holy war

The Second Crusade (1147–1150) was the second major crusade launched from Europe. The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the County of Edessa in 1144 to the forces of Zengi. The county had been founded during the First Crusade (1096–1099) by the future King Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1098. While it was the first Crusader state to be founded, it was also the first to fall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baldwin III of Jerusalem</span> King of Jerusalem from 1143 to 1163

Baldwin III was King of Jerusalem from 1143 to 1163. He was the eldest son of Melisende and Fulk of Jerusalem. He became king while still a child, and was at first overshadowed by his mother Melisende, whom he eventually defeated in a civil war. During his reign Jerusalem became more closely allied with the Byzantine Empire, and the Second Crusade tried and failed to conquer Damascus. Baldwin captured the important Egyptian fortress of Ascalon, but also had to deal with the increasing power of Nur ad-Din in Syria. He died childless and was succeeded by his brother Amalric.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nur al-Din Zengi</span> Emir of Aleppo (1146–1174) and Damascus (1154–1174)

Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd Zengī, commonly known as Nur ad-Din, was a Turkoman member of the Zengid dynasty, who ruled the Syrian province of the Seljuk Empire. He reigned from 1146 to 1174. He is regarded as an important figure of the Second Crusade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raymond III, Count of Tripoli</span> Count of Tripoli from 1152 to 1187

Raymond III was count of Tripoli from 1152 to 1187. He was a minor when Nizari Assassins murdered his father, Raymond II of Tripoli. Baldwin III of Jerusalem, who was staying in Tripoli, made Raymond's mother, Hodierna of Jerusalem, regent. Raymond spent the following years at the royal court in Jerusalem. He reached the age of majority in 1155, after which he participated in a series of military campaigns against Nur ad-Din, the Zengid ruler of Damascus. In 1161 he hired pirates to pillage the Byzantine coastline and islands to take vengeance on Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos, who had refused to marry his sister Melisende. He was captured in the Battle of Harim by Nur ad-Din's troops on 10 August 1164, and imprisoned in Aleppo for almost ten years. During his captivity, Amalric I of Jerusalem administered the county of Tripoli on his behalf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Acre (1189–1191)</span> Battle of the Third Crusade

The siege of Acre was the first significant counterattack by Guy of Jerusalem against Saladin, leader of the Muslims in Syria and Egypt. This pivotal siege formed part of what later became known as the Third Crusade. The siege lasted from August 1189 until July 1191, in which time the city's coastal position meant the attacking Latin force were unable to fully invest the city and Saladin was unable to fully relieve it with both sides receiving supplies and resources by sea. Finally, it was a key victory for the Crusaders and a serious setback for Saladin's ambition to destroy the Crusader states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raymond II, Count of Tripoli</span> Count of Tripoli from 1137 to 1152

Raymond II was count of Tripoli from 1137 to 1152. He succeeded his father, Pons, who was killed during a campaign that a commander from Damascus launched against Tripoli. Raymond accused the local Christians of betraying his father and invaded their villages in the Mount Lebanon area. He also had many of them tortured and executed. Raymond was captured during an invasion by Imad ad-Din Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, who gained the two important castles of Montferrand and Rafaniya in exchange for his release in the summer of 1137.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bohemond III of Antioch</span> Prince of Antioch from 1163 to 1201

Bohemond III of Antioch, also known as Bohemond the Child or the Stammerer, was Prince of Antioch from 1163 to 1201. He was the elder son of Constance of Antioch and her first husband, Raymond of Poitiers. Bohemond ascended to the throne after the Antiochene noblemen dethroned his mother with the assistance of the lord of Armenian Cilicia, Thoros II. He fell into captivity in the Battle of Harim in 1164, but the victorious Nur ad-Din, atabeg of Aleppo released him to avoid coming into conflict with the Byzantine Empire. Bohemond went to Constantinople to pay homage to Manuel I Komnenos, who persuaded him to install a Greek Orthodox patriarch in Antioch. The Latin patriarch of Antioch, Aimery of Limoges, placed Antioch under interdict. Bohemond restored Aimery only after the Greek patriarch died during an earthquake in 1170.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Inab</span> 1149 battle during the Second Crusade in modern-day Syria

The Battle of Inab, also called Battle of Ard al-Hâtim or Fons Muratus, was fought on 29 June 1149, during the Second Crusade. The Zengid army of the atabeg Nur al-Din Zengi destroyed the combined army of Prince Raymond of Antioch and the Assassins of Ali ibn-Wafa. The prince was killed, and the Principality of Antioch was subsequently pillaged and reduced in size as its eastern border was pushed west.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Edessa (1144)</span> Fall of the capital to the Zengids

The siege of Edessa took place from 28 November to 24 December 1144, resulting in the fall of the capital of the County of Edessa to Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo. This event was the catalyst for the Second Crusade.

Mu'in ad-Din Unur was the ruler of Damascus from 1140 to 1149. He was a Turkoman slave of Burid emirs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siege of Ascalon</span> 1153 battle of the Crusades

The siege of Ascalon took place from 25 January to 22 August 1153, in the time period between the Second and Third Crusades, and resulted in the capture of the Fatimid Egyptian fortress by the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Ascalon was an important castle that was used by the Fatimids to launch raids into the Crusader kingdom's territory, and by 1153 it was the last coastal city in Palestine that was not controlled by the Crusaders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crusades</span> Religious wars of the High Middle Ages

The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Christian Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land between 1095 and 1291 that had the objective of reconquering Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Muslim rule after the region had been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate centuries earlier. Beginning with the First Crusade, which resulted in the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of military campaigns were organised, providing a focal point of European history for centuries. Crusading declined rapidly after the 15th century.

The Battle of Bosra was a lengthy and ultimately inconclusive battle fought in the spring of 1147 during the Second Crusade, between a Crusader force commanded by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem and Turkish forces from Damascus led by Mu'in ad-Din Unur, who was aided by Nur ad-Din's contingent from Mosul and Aleppo. Irritated by his Damascus overlord, the emir of Bosra and Salkhad invited the Crusaders to occupy the two places. Before the Latin army could take possession of Bosra, the emir's wife allowed a Damascene garrison into the city, and the thwarted Crusaders were forced to retreat via a grueling march through enemy territory. The Turks constantly harassed the retreating Latin column but were unable to inflict a defeat on their enemies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Council of Acre</span>

The Council of Acre met at Palmarea, near Acre, a major city of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, on 24 June 1148. The Haute Cour of Jerusalem met with recently arrived crusaders from Europe, to decide on the best target for the crusade. The Second Crusade had been called after the fall of Edessa to Zengi in 1144. In 1147, armies led by Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France began their separate journeys to the east. Conrad arrived at Acre in April 1148, and Louis marched south from Antioch.

This chronology presents the timeline of the Crusades from the beginning of the First Crusade in 1095 to the fall of Jerusalem in 1187. This is keyed towards the major events of the Crusades to the Holy Land, but also includes those of the Reconquista and Northern Crusades as well as the Byzantine-Seljuk wars.

References

  1. 1 2 Runciman 1952, pp. 228–229.
  2. ↑ Phillips 1994, pp. 141–142.
  3. 1 2 Runciman 1952, pp. 179–180.
  4. ↑ Tyerman 2019, pp. 160–161.
  5. ↑ Richard 1999, p. 152.
  6. ↑ Smail 1956, pp. 158–159.
  7. ↑ Runciman 1952, p. 211.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Riley-Smith 1991, p. 50.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brundage 1962, pp. 115–121.
  10. ↑ Riley-Smith 1991, pp. 49–50.
  11. ↑ Schmieder & O'Doherty 2015, pp. 121–138.
  12. ↑ Cowan, Mackay & Macquarrie 1983, p. 18.
  13. ↑ Freed 2016, pp. 51–53.
  14. ↑ William of Tyre 1943, pp. 184–185.
  15. ↑ Hoch & Phillips 2002, p. 191.
  16. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 57.
  17. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 57–58.
  18. 1 2 3 Nicolle 2009, p. 58.
  19. ↑ Burns 2007, p. 153.
  20. ↑ Nicolle 2009, pp. 58–59.
  21. 1 2 3 Nicolle 2009, p. 59.
  22. ↑ William of Tyre 1943, p. 190.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 "The Siege of Damascus, 1148 CE". World History Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  24. 1 2 3 Welsh, William E. (2022). "Crusader Calamity at Damascus". Warfare History Network.
  25. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 67.
  26. ↑ "The Second Crusade: The Siege of Damascus, 1148". cornell.edu. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
  27. ↑ Nicolle 2009, p. 71.
  28. ↑ William of Tyre, XVII. 7.
  29. ↑ Baldwin 1969, p. 541.
  30. ↑ Baldwin 1969, p. 542.
  31. ↑ Baldwin 1969, p. 510.
  32. ↑ Davies 2008, p. 266.
  33. ↑ Sandra Alvarez (16 March 2014). "Looking Back on the Second Crusade: Some Late Twelfth-Century English Perspectives". deremilitari.org. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  34. ↑ Schmieder & O'Doherty 2015, p. 125.
  35. ↑ Davies 2008, pp. 261–262.
  36. ↑ Runciman 1952, pp. 232–234.
  37. ↑ Runciman 1952, p. 277.
  38. ↑ Selina Denman (25 May 2016). "The city gardener: the damask rose's history and appeal". The National News. Archived from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
  39. ↑ Wright 1895, p. 226.
  40. ↑ George 2003, p. 40.

Bibliography

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.