Standing (law)

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In law, standing or locus standi is a condition that a party seeking a legal remedy must show they have, by demonstrating to the court, sufficient connection to and harm from the law or action challenged to support that party's participation in the case. A party has standing in the following situations:

Contents

In the United States, the current doctrine is that a person cannot bring a suit challenging the constitutionality of a law unless they can demonstrate that they are or will "imminently" be harmed by the law. Otherwise, the court will rule that the plaintiff "lacks standing" to bring the suit, and will dismiss the case without considering the merits of the claim of unconstitutionality.

International courts

The Council of Europe created the first international court before which individuals have automatic locus standi. [3]

Australia

Australia has a common law understanding of locus standi or standing which is expressed in statutes such as the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 and common law decisions of the High Court of Australia especially the case Australian Conservation Foundation v Commonwealth (1980). [4] At common law, the test for standing is whether the plaintiff has a "special interest in the subject matter of the action". [4] Under the Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 to have standing the applicant must be "a person who is aggrieved", [5] defined as "a person whose interests are adversely affected" by the decision or conduct complained of. [6] This has generally been interpreted in accordance with the common law test. [7]

There is no open standing, [8] [4] unless statute allows it, [9] or represents needs of a specified class of people. [10] [11] The issue is one of remoteness. [12] [13] [14]

Standing may apply to class of aggrieved people, [11] where essentially the closeness of the plaintiff to the subject matter is the test. [15] Furthermore, a plaintiff must show that he or she has been specially affected in comparison with the public at large. [11]

Also, while there is no open standing per se, prerogative writs like certiorari, [16] writ of prohibition, quo warranto [14] and habeas corpus [17] have a low burden in establishing standing. [8]
Australian courts also recognise amicus curiae (friend of the court), [12] [18] and the various Attorneys General have a presumed standing in administrative law cases. [12]

Canada

In Canadian administrative law, whether an individual has standing to bring an application for judicial review, or an appeal from the decision of a tribunal, is governed by the language of the particular statute under which the application or the appeal is brought. Some statutes provide for a narrow right of standing while others provide for a broader right of standing. [19]

Frequently a litigant wishes to bring a civil action for a declaratory judgment against a public body or official. This is considered an aspect of administrative law, sometimes with a constitutional dimension, as when the litigant seeks to have legislation declared unconstitutional.

Public interest standing

The Supreme Court of Canada developed the concept of public interest standing in three constitutional cases commonly called "the Standing trilogy": Thorson v. Attorney General of Canada , [20] Nova Scotia Board of Censors v. McNeil , [21] and Minister of Justice v. Borowski . [22] The trilogy was summarized as follows in Canadian Council of Churches v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) : [23]

It has been seen that when public interest standing is sought, consideration must be given to three aspects. First, is there a serious issue raised as to the invalidity of legislation in question? Second, has it been established that the plaintiff is directly affected by the legislation or if not does the plaintiff have a genuine interest in its validity? Third, is there another reasonable and effective way to bring the issue before the court? [24]

Public-interest standing is also available in non-constitutional cases, as the Court found in Finlay v. Canada (Minister of Finance). [25]

Nigeria

Like in other jurisdictions, the right to approach a court is contained in the Constitution. [26] The right to approach a court has been interpreted in several cases, this has led to the right to be view differently in different cases. In recent times, there have been different approaches to locus standi. They are:

United Kingdom

In British administrative law, an applicant needs to have a sufficient interest in the matter to which the application relates. [32] This sufficient interest requirement has been construed liberally by the courts. As Lord Diplock put it: [33]

[i]t would ... be a grave danger to escape lacuna in our system of public law if a pressure group ... or even a single public spirited taxpayer, were prevented by outdated technical rules of locus standi from bringing the matter to the attention of the court to vindicate the rule of law and get the unlawful conduct stopped.

In the law of contract, the doctrine of privity means that only those who are party to a contract can sue or be sued upon it. [34] This doctrine was substantially amended by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, which allows third parties specified in a contract to enforce it provided the contract expressly grants them the right to do so.

Almost all criminal prosecutions are brought by the state via the Crown Prosecution Service, so private prosecutions are rare. An exception was the case of Whitehouse v Lemon where Mrs Mary Whitehouse, a self-appointed guardian of suburban morality, was permitted to bring a private prosecution for blasphemous libel (an offence still in existence until 2008) against the publisher of Gay News , Denis Lemon. [35] Victims of crime have standing to sue the perpetrator and they may claim criminal injuries compensation from the state. If the state fails properly to bring a case, the victim or his family may have standing to bring a private prosecution, as in the case of Stephen Lawrence.

United States

In United States law, the Supreme Court has stated, "In essence the question of standing is whether the litigant is entitled to have the court decide the merits of the dispute or of particular issues." [36] John Rutledge, the second chief justice of the United States, was largely responsible for denying the Supreme Court the right to give advisory opinions at the Constitutional Convention. Being a judge himself, he strongly believed that a judge's sole purpose was to resolve legal conflicts; he held that judges should hand down an opinion only when they rule on an actual case. [37] [38]

There are a number of requirements that a plaintiff must establish to have standing before a federal court. Some are based on the case or controversy requirement of the judicial power of Article Three of the United States Constitution, § 2, cl.1. As stated there, "The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases . . .[and] to Controversies . . ." The requirement that a plaintiff have standing to sue is a limit on the role of the judiciary and the law of Article III standing is built on the idea of separation of powers. [39]

Federal courts may exercise power only "in the last resort, and as a necessity". [39] The Supreme Court has determined that the case or controversy requirement found in Article Three of the United States Constitution prohibits United States federal courts from issuing advisory opinions. Accordingly, before the court will hear a case, it must find that the parties have a tangible interest at stake in the matter, the issue presented must be "mature for judicial resolution" or ripe, and a justiciable issue must remain before the court throughout the course of the lawsuit.

The American doctrine of standing is assumed as having begun with the case of Frothingham v. Mellon . [40] However, legal standing truly rests its first prudential origins in Fairchild v. Hughes , (1922) which was authored by Justice Louis Brandeis. [41] In Fairchild, a citizen sued the Secretary of State and the Attorney General to challenge the procedures by which the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified. Prior to it, the doctrine was that all persons had a right to pursue a private prosecution of a public right. [42] Since then the doctrine has been embedded in judicial rules and some statutes.

In 2011, in Bond v. United States , the U.S. Supreme Court held that a criminal defendant charged with violating a federal statute does have standing to challenge the constitutionality of that statute under the Tenth Amendment. [43]

Standing requirements

There are three standing requirements:

  1. Injury-in-fact: The plaintiff must have suffered or imminently will suffer injury—an invasion of a legally protected interest that is (a) concrete and particularized, and (b) actual or imminent (that is, neither conjectural nor hypothetical; not abstract). [44] [45] The injury can be either economic, non-economic, or both.
  2. Causation: There must be a causal connection between the injury and the conduct complained of, so that the injury is fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant and not the result of the independent action of some third party who is not before the court. [46]
  3. Redressability: It must be likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that a favorable court decision will redress the injury. [47]

Prudential limitations

Additionally, there are three major prudential (judicially created) standing principles (prudential standing). Congress can override these principles via statute:

  1. General prohibition of third-party standing: A party may only assert their own rights and cannot raise the claims of a third party who is not before the court; exceptions exist where the third party has interchangeable economic interests with the injured party, or a person unprotected by a particular law sues to challenge the oversweeping of the law into the rights of others. For example, a party suing over a law prohibiting certain types of visual material, may sue because the 1st Amendment rights of theirs, and others engaged in similar displays, might be damaged.
    Additionally, third parties who do not have standing may be able to sue under the next friend doctrine if the third party is an infant, mentally handicapped, or not a party to a contract. One example of a statutory exception to the prohibition of third party standing exists in the qui tam provision of the Civil False Claims Act. [48]
  2. Prohibition of generalized grievances: A plaintiff cannot sue if the injury is widely shared in an undifferentiated way with many people. For example, the general rule is that there is no federal taxpayer standing, as complaints about the spending of federal funds are too remote from the process of acquiring them. Such grievances are ordinarily more appropriately addressed in the representative branches.
  3. Zone of interest test: There are in fact two tests used by the United States Supreme Court for the zone of interest
    1. Zone of injury: The injury is the kind of injury that Congress expected might be addressed under the statute. [49]
    2. Zone of interests: The party is arguably within the zone of interest protected by the statute or constitutional provision. [50]

Recent development of the doctrine

In 1984, the Supreme Court reviewed and further outlined the standing requirements in a major ruling concerning the meaning of the three standing requirements of injury, causation, and redressability. [51] In the suit, parents of black public school children alleged that the Internal Revenue Service was not enforcing standards and procedures that would deny tax-exempt status to racially discriminatory private schools. The Court found that the plaintiffs did not have the standing necessary to bring suit. [52] Although the Court established a significant injury for one of the claims, it found the causation of the injury (the nexus between the defendant's actions and the plaintiff's injuries) to be too attenuated. [52] "The injury alleged was not fairly traceable to the Government conduct respondents challenge as unlawful". [53]

In another major standing case, Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555 (1992), the Supreme Court elaborated on the redressability requirement for standing. [47] The case involved a challenge to a rule promulgated by the Secretary of the Interior interpreting §7 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). The rule rendered §7 of the ESA applicable only to actions within the United States or on the high seas. The Court found that the plaintiffs did not have the standing necessary to bring suit, because no injury had been established. [54] The injury claimed by the plaintiffs was that damage would be caused to certain species of animals and that this in turn injures the plaintiffs by the reduced likelihood that the plaintiffs would see the species in the future. The court insisted though that the plaintiffs had to show how damage to the species would produce imminent injury to the plaintiffs. [55] The Court found that the plaintiffs did not sustain this burden of proof. "The 'injury in fact' test requires more than an injury to a cognizable interest. It requires that the party seeking review be himself among the injured". [56] The injury must be imminent and not hypothetical.

Beyond failing to show injury, the Court found that the plaintiffs failed to demonstrate the standing requirement of redressability. [57] The Court pointed out that the respondents chose to challenge a more generalized level of government action, "the invalidation of which would affect all overseas projects". This programmatic approach has "obvious difficulties insofar as proof of causation or redressability is concerned".

In a 2000 case, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources v. United States ex rel. Stevens, 529 U.S. 765 (2000), [48] the United States Supreme Court endorsed the "partial assignment" approach to qui tam relator standing to sue under the False Claims Act — allowing private individuals to sue on behalf of the U.S. government for injuries suffered solely by the government. [58]

In a 2009 case, Summers v. Earth Island Institute, 555 U.S. 488 (2009), [59] the Supreme Court held the petitioner environmental organizations' claim that it was "statistically likely" that some of their members would visit the affected lands was insufficient to support Article III standing. The majority opinion stated the "deprivation of a procedural right without some concrete interest that is affected by the deprivation . . . is insufficient to create Article III standing." [59]

Taxpayer standing

The initial case that established the doctrine of standing, Frothingham v. Mellon , was a taxpayer standing case. [40]

Taxpayer standing is the concept that any person who pays taxes should have standing to file a lawsuit against the taxing body if that body allocates funds in a way that the taxpayer feels is improper. The United States Supreme Court has held that taxpayer standing is not by itself a sufficient basis for standing against the United States government. [60] The Court has consistently found that the conduct of the federal government is too far removed from individual taxpayer returns for any injury to the taxpayer to be traced to the use of tax revenues, e.g., United States v. Richardson.

In DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno , [61] the Court extended this analysis to state governments as well. However, the Supreme Court has also held that taxpayer standing is constitutionally sufficient to sue a municipal government in a federal court. [62]

States are also protected against lawsuits by their sovereign immunity. Even where states waive their sovereign immunity, they may nonetheless have their own rules limiting standing against simple taxpayer standing against the state. Furthermore, states have the power to determine what will constitute standing for a litigant to be heard in a state court, and may deny access to the courts premised on taxpayer standing alone.

In California, taxpayers have standing to sue for any 'illegal expenditure of, waste of, or injury to the estate, funds, or other property of a local agency'. [63] In Florida, a taxpayer has standing to sue if the state government is acting unconstitutionally with respect to public funds, or if government action is causing some special injury to the taxpayer that is not shared by taxpayers in general. In Virginia, the Supreme Court of Virginia has more or less adopted a similar rule. An individual taxpayer generally has standing to challenge an act of a city or county where they live, but does not have general standing to challenge state expenditures.

Standing to challenge statutes

With limited exceptions, a party cannot have standing to challenge the constitutionality of a statute unless they will be subjected to the provisions of that statute. There are some exceptions, however; for example, courts will accept First Amendment challenges to a statute on overbreadth grounds, where a person who is only partially affected by a statute can challenge the parts that do not affect him on the grounds that laws that restrict speech have a chilling effect on other people's right to free speech.

The only other way someone can have standing to challenge the constitutionality of a statute is if the existence of the statute would otherwise deprive him of a right or a privilege even if the statute itself would not apply to him. The Virginia Supreme Court made this point clear in the case of Martin v. Ziherl 607 S.E.2d 367 (Va. 2005). Martin and Ziherl were girlfriend and boyfriend and engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse when Martin discovered that Ziherl had infected her with herpes, even though he knew he was infected and did not inform her of this. She sued him for damages, but because it was illegal (at the time the case was filed) to commit "fornication" (sexual intercourse between a man and a woman who are not married), Ziherl argued that Martin could not sue him because joint tortfeasors – those involved in committing a crime – cannot sue each other over acts occurring as a result of a criminal act (Zysk v. Zysk, 404 S.E.2d 721 (Va. 1990)). Martin argued in rebuttal that because of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Lawrence v. Texas (finding that state's sodomy law unconstitutional), Virginia's anti-fornication law was also unconstitutional for the reasons cited in Lawrence. Martin argued, therefore, she could, in fact, sue Ziherl for damages.

Lower courts decided that because the Commonwealth's Attorney does not prosecute fornication cases and no one had been prosecuted for fornication anywhere in Virginia in over 100 years, Martin had no risk of prosecution and thus lacked standing to challenge the statute. Martin appealed. Since Martin had something to lose – the ability to sue Ziherl for damages – if the statute was upheld, she had standing to challenge the constitutionality of the statute even though the possibility of her being prosecuted for violating it was zero. Since the U.S. Supreme Court in Lawrence had found that there is a privacy right in one's private, noncommercial sexual practices, the Virginia Supreme Court decided that the statute against fornication was unconstitutional. The finding gave Martin standing to sue Ziherl since the decision in Zysk was no longer applicable.

However, the only reason Martin had standing to challenge the statute was that she had something to lose if it stayed on the books.

Standing to challenge a contract award

Only an "interested party" has standing to challenge a federal contract award. In this context, an "interested party" is a company or person who bid for a contract, or a prospective bidder, whose "direct economic interest would be affected by the award of the contract" to another business. [64]

Ballot measures

In Hollingsworth v. Perry , the Supreme Court ruled that being the proponents of a ballot measure is not by itself enough to confer legal standing. In that case, Proposition 8 had banned same-sex marriage in California, a ban that was ruled unconstitutional. The Supreme Court ruled that the proponents of Proposition 8 has no standing in court since they failed to show that they were harmed by the decision.

State law

State law on standing differs substantially from federal law and varies considerably from state to state. [65]

California

Californians may bring "taxpayer actions" against public officials for wasting public funds through mismanagement of a government agency, where the relief sought is an order compelling the official not to waste money and fulfill his duty to protect the public fisc. [66]

On December 29, 2009, the California Court of Appeal for the Sixth District ruled that California Code of Civil Procedure Section 367 cannot be read as imposing a federal-style standing doctrine on California's code pleading system of civil procedure. [67] In California, the fundamental inquiry is always whether the plaintiff has sufficiently plead a cause of action, not whether the plaintiff has some entitlement to judicial action separate from proof of the substantive merits of the claim advanced. [67] The court acknowledged that the word "standing" is often sloppily used to refer to what is really jus tertii , and held that jus tertii in state law is not the same thing as the federal standing doctrine. [67]

See also

Related Research Articles

Personal jurisdiction is a court's jurisdiction over the parties, as determined by the facts in evidence, which bind the parties to a lawsuit, as opposed to subject-matter jurisdiction, which is jurisdiction over the law involved in the suit. Without personal jurisdiction over a party, a court's rulings or decrees cannot be enforced upon that party, except by comity; i.e., to the extent that the sovereign which has jurisdiction over the party allows the court to enforce them upon that party. A court that has personal jurisdiction has both the authority to rule on the law and facts of a suit and the power to enforce its decision upon a party to the suit. In some cases, territorial jurisdiction may also constrain a court's reach, such as preventing hearing of a case concerning events occurring on foreign territory between two citizens of the home jurisdiction. A similar principle is that of standing or locus standi, which is the ability of a party to demonstrate to the court sufficient connection to and harm from the law or action challenged to support that party's participation in the case.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ripeness</span> Readiness of a case for litigation in US law

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Flast v. Cohen, 392 U.S. 83 (1968), was a United States Supreme Court case holding that federal taxpayers have standing to seek relief from the courts for claims that federal tax money is being used for unconstitutional purposes in violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), was a landmark decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in which the Court held, 6–3, that the line-item veto, as granted in the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, violated the Presentment Clause of the United States Constitution because it impermissibly gave the President of the United States the power to unilaterally amend or repeal parts of statutes that had been duly passed by the United States Congress. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote for the six-justice majority that the line-item veto gave the President power over legislation unintended by the Constitution, and was therefore an overstep in their duties.

Craig v. Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976), was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court ruling that statutory or administrative sex classifications were subject to intermediate scrutiny under the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. The case was argued by future Supreme Court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg while she was working for the American Civil Liberties Union.

<i>Martin v. Ziherl</i> 2005 Supreme Court of Virginia case

Martin v. Ziherl, 607 S.E.2d 367, was a decision by the Supreme Court of Virginia holding that the Virginia criminal law against fornication was unconstitutional. The court's decision followed the 2003 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in Lawrence v. Texas, which established the constitutionally-protected right of adults to engage in private, consensual sex.

Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. 737 (1984), was a United States Supreme Court case that determined that citizens do not have standing to sue a federal government agency based on the influence that the agency's determinations might have on third parties.

England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners, 375 U.S. 411 (1964), was a United States Supreme Court decision that refined the procedures for U.S. federal courts to abstain from deciding issues of state law, pursuant to the doctrine set forth in Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co., 312 U.S. 496 (1941).

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Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555 (1992), was a landmark Supreme Court of the United States decision, handed down on June 12, 1992, that heightened standing requirements under Article III of the United States Constitution. It is "one of the most influential cases in modern environmental standing jurisprudence." Lily Henning of the Legal Times stated that:

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In U.S. constitutional law, a facial challenge is a challenge to a statute in which the plaintiff alleges that the legislation is always unconstitutional, and therefore void. It is contrasted with an as-applied challenge, which alleges that a particular application of a statute is unconstitutional.

Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490 (1975), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court reviewed the concept of judicial standing and affirmed that if the plaintiffs lacked standing, they could not maintain a case against the defendants.

DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno, 547 U.S. 332 (2006), is a United States Supreme Court case involving the standing of taxpayers to challenge state tax laws in federal court. The Court unanimously ruled that state taxpayers did not have standing under Article III of the United States Constitution to challenge state tax or spending decisions simply by virtue of their status as taxpayers. Chief Justice John Roberts delivered the majority opinion, which was joined by all of the justices except for Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who concurred separately.

Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation, 551 U.S. 587 (2007), was a decision by the United States Supreme Court which ruled that taxpayers do not have the right to challenge the constitutionality of expenditures by the executive branch of the government. The issue was whether taxpayers have the right to challenge the existence of the White House Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives. The case centered on three Supreme Court precedents: Flast v. Cohen, Bowen v. Kendrick, and Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sovereign immunity in the United States</span> Legal protection of federal, state and tribal governments

In United States law, the federal government as well as state and tribal governments generally enjoy sovereign immunity, also known as governmental immunity, from lawsuits. Local governments in most jurisdictions enjoy immunity from some forms of suit, particularly in tort. The Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act provides foreign governments, including state-owned companies, with a related form of immunity—state immunity—that shields them from lawsuits except in relation to certain actions relating to commercial activity in the United States. The principle of sovereign immunity in US law was inherited from the English common law legal maxim rex non potest peccare, meaning "the king can do no wrong." In some situations, sovereign immunity may be waived by law.

Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 U.S. 288 (1936), was a United States Supreme Court case that provided the first elaboration of the doctrine of "Constitutional avoidance".

A private attorney general or public interest lawyer is an informal term originating in common law jurisdictions for a private attorney who brings a lawsuit claiming it to be in the public interest, i.e., benefiting the general public and not just the plaintiff, on behalf of a citizen or group of citizens. The attorney may, at the equitable discretion of the court, be entitled to recover attorney's fees if they prevail. The rationale behind this principle is to provide extra incentive to private attorneys to pursue suits that may be of benefit to society at large. Private attorney general suits are commonly, though not always, brought as class actions in jurisdictions that permit the certification of class action lawsuits.

References

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  2. ↑ Lee, Evan; Mason Ellis, Josephine (December 3, 2012). "The Standing Doctrine's Dirty Little Secret". Northwestern Law Review. 107: 169. SSRN   2027130.
  3. ↑ Smith, Rhona K. M., Textbook on International Human Rights. 4th Edition. 2010.
  4. 1 2 3 Australian Conservation Foundation v Commonwealth [1980] HCA 53 , (1980) 146 CLR 493(13 February 1980).
  5. ↑ Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) s 5.
  6. ↑ Administrative Decisions (Judicial Review) Act 1977 (Cth) s 3(4).
  7. ↑ Right To Life Association (NSW) Inc v Secretary, Department of Human Services and Health and Family Planning Inc (Vic) [1995] FCA 1060 , (1995) 128 ALR 238, Federal Court (Australia).
  8. 1 2 Standing in public interest cases, Queensland Public Interest Law Clearing House Incorporated
  9. ↑ Sinclair v Marybourough Mining Warden [1975] HCA 17 , (1975) 132 CLR 473(28 May 1975), High Court (Australia).
  10. ↑ Justice Brian J Preston,Standing to Sue at Common Law in Australia Archived 2014-03-02 at the Wayback Machine .
  11. 1 2 3 Onus v Alcoa of Australia Ltd [1981] HCA 50 , (1981) 149 CLR 27(18 September 1981), High Court (Australia).
  12. 1 2 3 Kelly, M (2009). Administrative Law Law Briefs. Pearson Education Australia. ISBN   9780733994302..
  13. ↑ see Transurban v Allan [1999] FCA 1723 , (1999) 95 FCR 553(10 December 1999), Federal Court (Australia).
  14. 1 2 Truth About Motorways Pty Ltd v Macquarie Infrastructure Investment Management Ltd [2000] HCA 11 , (2000) 200 CLR 591(9 March 2000), High Court (Australia).
  15. ↑ See also Ogle v Strickland (1986) 13 FCR 306, Federal Court (Australia).
  16. ↑ re Smith; Ex parte Rundle (1991) 6 WAR 295, Supreme Court (WA, Australia).
  17. ↑ Ruddock v Vadarlis (Tampa case) [2001] FCA 1329 , (2001) 110 FCR 491(18 September 2001), Federal Court (Australia).
  18. ↑ US tobacco v Minister for Consumer Affairs [1988] FCA 213 , (1988) 20 FCR 520(24 June 1988), Federal Court (Australia).
  19. ↑ For example, under s. 18(1) the Federal Court Act, an application for review may be made by "anyone directly affected by the matter in respect of which the relief is sought".
  20. ↑ Thorson v. Attorney General of Canada , [1975] 1 S.C.R. 138.
  21. ↑ Nova Scotia Board of Censors v. McNeil , [1976] 2 S.C.R. 265.
  22. ↑ Minister of Justice v. Borowski , [1981] 2 S.C.R. 575.
  23. ↑ Canadian Council of Churches v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration) , [1992] 1 S.C.R. 236
  24. ↑ "Supreme Court of Canada - Decisions - Canadian Council of Churches v. Canada (Minister of Employment and Immigration)". Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
  25. ↑ Finlay v. Canada (Minister of Finance), [1986] 2 S.C.R. 607 Archived 2007-03-10 at the Wayback Machine .
  26. ↑ section 6(6)B of Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 as amended
  27. ↑ Abraham Adesanya v. President (1981)Law Pavilion Electronic Law Report -44501
  28. ↑ (2015) 4 NIGERIAN WEEKLY LAW REPORT -NWLR- [1448] page 60
  29. ↑ Jukok Int'l Ltd. v. Diamond Bank PLC (2016) NWLR [1507]
  30. 1 2 3 Fawehinmi v. President (2007)14 NWLR [1054] 275
  31. ↑ Fawehinmi v. Akilu no. 2(1989) NWLR [122]
  32. ↑ Senior Courts Act 1981 s.31(3).
  33. ↑ Inland Revenue Commissioners Appellants v National Federation of Self-Employed and Small Businesses Ltd. Respondents [1982] A.C. 617.
  34. ↑ Tweddle v Atkinson , Dunlop v Selfridge , Beswick v Beswick
  35. ↑ "Whitehouse v Lemon, Whitehouse v Gay News Ltd". lawindexpro.
  36. ↑ Warth v. Seldin , 422 U.S. 490, 498 (1975).
  37. ↑ Flanders, Henry (1874). The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. pp. 432–433. Archived from the original on April 26, 2016. Retrieved 2008-04-29.
  38. ↑ Haw, James: John & Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, P. 8 (1997)
  39. 1 2 Allen v. Wright , 468 U.S. 737, 752 (1984).
  40. 1 2 Frothingham v. Mellon , 262 U.S. 447 (1923).
  41. ↑ Fairchild v. Hughes , 258 U.S. 126 (1922).
  42. ↑ The Metaphor of Standing and the Problem of Self-Governance, by Steven L. Winter, 40 Stan. L. Rev. 1371, July, 1988.
  43. ↑ Bond v. United States , 564 U.S. 211 (2011).
  44. ↑ Varma, Corey (2016). "The Presumption of Injury: Giving Data Breach Victims 'A Leg To Stand On'". Journal of Information Technology & Privacy Law. 32 (4).
  45. ↑ Clapper v. Amnesty International USA , 568 U.S. 398 (2013)
  46. ↑ For example, Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency (global warming caused by EPA's refusal to regulate carbon dioxide emissions satisfied element of causation for Massachusetts's alleged injury of loss of coastland).
  47. 1 2 Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555 (1992).
  48. 1 2 Vermont Agency of Natural Resources v. United States ex rel. Stevens, 529 U.S. 765 (2000).
  49. ↑ Federal Election Commission v. Akins , 524 U.S. 11 (1998).
  50. ↑ Allen v. Wright , 468 U.S. 737 (1984).
  51. ↑ Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. at 752 (1984).
  52. 1 2 Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. at 755 (1984).
  53. ↑ Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S. at 757 (1984).
  54. ↑ Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 562.
  55. ↑ Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 564.
  56. ↑ Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 563.
  57. ↑ Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 568.
  58. ↑ Nathan D. Sturycz, The King and I?: An Examination of the Interest Qui Tam Relators Represent and the Implications for Future False Claims Act Litigation, 28 St. Louis Pub. L. Rev. 459 (2009), available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=1537749. For the general standing rule, see Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555 (1992).
  59. 1 2 Summers v. Earth Island Institute , 555 U.S. 488 (2009)
  60. ↑ Flast v. Cohen , 392 U.S. 83 (1968).
  61. ↑ DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno , 547 U.S. 332 (2006).
  62. ↑ "Substantial Interest: Standing". LII / Legal Information Institute.
  63. ↑ Cal. Code of Civil Procedure § 526a
  64. ↑ United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Digitalis Education Solutions and United States v Morris & Lee (Doing Business as Science First), p. 5, decided 4 January 2012, accessed 19 December 2023
  65. ↑ Sassman, Wyatt (2015). "A Survey of Constitutional Standing in State Courts". SSRN. SSRN   2977348 . Retrieved 2022-12-27.
  66. ↑ See, e.g., Humane Society of the United States v. State Bd. of Equalization, 152 Cal. App. 4th 349 (2007).
  67. 1 2 3 Jasmine Networks, Inc. v. Superior Court (Marvell Semiconductor, Inc.), 180Cal. App. 4th980 (2009).
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