Stoplight parrotfish

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Stoplight parrotfish
Stoplight-parrotfish.jpg
Male (terminal phase)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Labriformes
Family: Scaridae
Genus: Sparisoma
Species:
S. viride
Binomial name
Sparisoma viride
Synonyms [2]
  • Scarus viridisBonnaterre, 1788

The stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride) is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae, inhabiting coral reefs in Florida, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and as far south as Brazil. [3] It mainly feeds on algae by scraping and excavating it with its teeth. Like most of its relatives, it is able to change sex.

Contents

The common name, stoplight, comes from the marked yellow spot near the pectoral fin, which is clearly visible only in specimens in the terminal phase.

Sex Change & Coloring

The stoplight parrotfish is a protogynous hermaphrodite that shows full sexual dichromatism, meaning that it changes its sex from female to male during its lifespan, and its color changes with its sex change. [4] The sex change is most likely due to the control of hormones, in particular, 11-ketetestosterone (11-KT). [5] The timing of the sex change can vary depending on population density, growth, and mortality rates. Early sex changes may occur if sexually active individuals have a higher mortality rate or have reduced growth rates. [6]

Stoplight parrotfish in its initial phase Stoplight-parrotfish-initial-phase.jpg
Stoplight parrotfish in its initial phase

The stoplight parrotfish has 3 life phases: juvenile, initial, and terminal. The colors of the stoplight parrotfish in the initial phase, when it could be either a male or a female, are dramatically different from those in the terminal phase, when it is definitely a male. [5] During the juvenile and initial phase, the parrotfishes are colored brown with a red belly. During the terminal phase, the parrotfishes are a vivid green color with yellow spots on the tail base of their caudal fin. [4] [7] However, some males do not change color at the same time they change sex, therefore becoming female-mimic males (also termed initial phase males). During the initial phase, about 4% of the smaller parrotfish individuals are males. [7]

Habitat

The stoplight parrotfish inhabit shallow coral reefs not disturbed by humans in Florida, the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda and Brazil. [4] They are only active during the day and spend most of their time foraging, swimming, or hovering. [4] [7] At night, they remain hidden under coral boulders. [4] Large individuals typically spend more time swimming and spend a significant amount of time sheltering among crevices, [7] while smaller individuals spend more time hovering. [7] The stoplight parrotfish have a high density in areas of higher algal production. As adults, the stoplight parrotfish are site-attached with limited home ranges. [6]

In the Florida Keys, the stoplight parrotfish were found most frequently in areas with high cover of the macroalgae Dictyota . They have also been found to select for the branching coral Porites porites , however Dictyota are an effective recruitment substrate when branching corals are not available. [8]

Due to its abundance in the Caribbean, the stoplight parrotfish are very ecologically important there. [6]

Onshore and Offshore Reefs

Onshore coral reefs have a greater proportion of older juvenile fish, suggesting that the mortality and/or emigration of adults is more common onshore. [8] Stoplight parrotfishes on offshore coral reefs have a greater average standard length, greater mean asymptotic size, and live twice as long as other fish from onshore coral reefs. Fish onshore were no older than 4 years, while the fish offshore reached 7–8 years. The age difference between offshore and onshore reefs could be due to the stoplight parrotfish migrating from onshore to offshore reefs with age, however, there is no evidence of ontogenetic migration. [6]

Feeding & Foraging

The stoplight parrotfish employs a scraping and excavating grazing mode and feeds almost exclusively on algae that are associated with dead coral substrates. [4] They have higher grazing rates and assimilation efficiencies in areas with high-quality food. [6]

Their preferred food types are large, sparse turfs growing on carbonate substrates that are inhibited by endolithic algae. Algae have high levels of proteins, a high energetic value, along with a high yield, making it preferable to the stoplight parrotfish. As facultative corallivores, adult fish will occasionally feed on living corals (mainly Montastrea annularis ). In healthy coral reef environments, the detriment of coral-feeding by parrotfish tends to be offset by the benefits of their algal feeding. In declining coral reefs, however, corallivory by parrotfish may act synergystically with other stressors to depress coral growth and recovery. [9] Crutose corallines are not preferred, whether or not they do or do not have algal turf. [4]

Their foraging strategy is called “search and nip” and they spend short bouts of energy on swimming, feeding, and hovering. [7]

Growth Rate

The stoplight parrotfish grow continuously throughout life [4] and their growth rate increases with higher food availability. [6] The largest class of stoplight parrotfish is when they are in their terminal phase. [6]

Its typical length is between 1 and 1.5 ft (30–45 cm), [3] but it can reach up to 2 ft (64 cm). [2] It is normally found during the day at depths between 15 and 80 ft (5–25 m), [3] but can be found from 10 to 165 ft (3–50 m) [2]

Reproduction

Stoplight parrotfishes engage in reproductive activity throughout the year. [4] They are harem-forming fishes and territorial terminal phase males defend areas that are shared with 1-14 initial phase parrotfishes, with whom they mate. There is more territorial defense in areas with high-quality food. [6] Single terminal phase males also defend the deeper reef from conspecifics. [4]

Stoplight parrotfish males will often control territories containing many sexually mature females to breed with. Males that have territories and those that don't will have vastly different levels of testosterone. [10]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrotfish</span> Family of fishes

Parrotfish are a group of fish species traditionally regarded as a family (Scaridae), but now often treated as a subfamily (Scarinae) or tribe (Scarini) of the wrasses (Labridae). With roughly 95 species, this group's largest species richness is in the Indo-Pacific. They are found in coral reefs, rocky coasts, and seagrass beds, and can play a significant role in bioerosion.

<i>Sparisoma</i> Genus of fishes

Sparisoma is a genus of parrotfishes native to warmer parts of the Atlantic. FishBase recognizes 15 species in this genus, including S. rocha described from Trindade Island in 2010 and S. choati described from the East Atlantic in 2012. They are the most important grazers of algae in the Caribbean Sea, especially since sea urchins, especially Diadema, the other prominent consumers of algae, have been reduced in many places by a recent epidemic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Midnight parrotfish</span> Species of fish

The midnight parrotfish is a species of parrotfish that inhabits coral reefs mainly in the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Princess parrotfish</span> Species of fish

The princess parrotfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. It is typically 20 to 25 centimetres long, found in the Caribbean, South Florida, the Bahamas, and Bermuda. Its behavior, similar to other parrotfishes, is to swim about the reef and sandy patches during the day, at depths between 3 and 25 metres, scraping algae on which it feeds.

<i>Cetoscarus bicolor</i> Species of fish

Cetoscarus bicolor, also known as the bicolour parrotfish or bumphead parrotfish, is a species of fish belonging to the family Scaridae. It is found only in the Red Sea.

<i>Sparisoma cretense</i> Species of fish

The Mediterranean parrotfish is a species of parrotfish found at depths up to 50 m (160 ft) along rocky shores in the Mediterranean and the eastern Atlantic, from Portugal south to Senegal. It is generally common, but uncommon or rare in the northwestern Mediterranean and in the Adriatic Sea. It prefers relatively warm temperatures and there is an ongoing northward range expansion, possibly due to global warming. The primary adult habitat is rocky reefs, especially in areas with macroalgae, but they may visit adjacent seagrass patches. Juveniles also occur more widely in the latter habitat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Queen parrotfish</span> Colorful species of fish in Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea

The queen parrotfish is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. It is found on reefs in the tropical West Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Other common names include blownose, blue chub, blue parrotfish, blueman, joblin crow parrot, moontail, okra peji and slimy head. The young males and adult female queen parrotfish are a reddish-brown color, and quite different in appearance from the bluish-green color of the final phase male. This is a common species throughout its range and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as "least concern".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue parrotfish</span> Species of fish

The blue parrotfish is a member of the parrotfish genus Scarus. It is found on coral reefs in shallow water in the tropical and subtropical parts of the western Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. They usually forage in a group of 500 individuals for spawning and deterring predators while feeding.

<i>Chlorurus sordidus</i> Species of fish

Chlorurus sordidus, known commonly as the daisy parrotfish or bullethead parrotfish, is a species of marine fish in the family Scaridae.

<i>Sparisoma aurofrenatum</i> Species of fish

Sparisoma aurofrenatum is a species of parrotfish native to the Caribbean Sea and Western Atlantic Ocean.

<i>Scarus niger</i> Species of fish

Scarus niger, common names the swarthy parrotfish, dusky parrotfish, and black parrotfish, is a species of parrotfish. It is in the phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, and family Scaridae. Like other members of its family, it has characteristic 10 dorsal soft rays, 9 dorsal spines, 9 anal soft rays, and 3 anal spines, It is found in Indo-West and Central Pacific, from the Red Sea, north to Japan, south to Australia and east to French Polynesia. It is found in lagoons, channels and outer reefs slopes on the depths of 2 to 20 metres. The dusky parrotfish often lives in solitude, but males may also live in a small group of mating females. The dusky parrotfish is primarily herbivorous, and its main source of food is benthic algae. At maturity, the fish is approximately 230-240mm long and weighs around 240g.

<i>Hipposcarus harid</i> Species of fish

Hipposcarus harid, the Longnose parrotfish or Candelamoa parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae found on coral reefs of Indian Ocean and the Red Sea.

<i>Chlorurus microrhinos</i> Species of fish

Chlorurus microrhinos, the blunt-head parrotfish or steephead parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae. It is found in the Indo-Pacific region.

<i>Calotomus carolinus</i> Species of fish

Calotomus carolinus, commonly known as Carolines parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish, in the family Scaridae. It is also known as the starry-eye parrotfish, stareye parrotfish, bucktooth parrotfish, Christmas parrotfish or marbled parrotfish. Since the Calotomus carolinus is known across the Pacific, it also has its own name in many native languages for example, it is called a panuhunuhunu in the Hawaiian language.

<i>Chlorurus capistratoides</i> Species of fish

Chlorurus capistratoides, commonly known as the Indian parrotfish or the pink-margined parrotfish, is a marine ray-finned fish, a parrotfish from the family Scaridae. This species is native to the eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean, where it lives in coral reefs. This species occurs in small schools, frequently mixed in with other fish species, these schools forage over corals in clear coastal and inner reefs where there is abundant algal and coral growth. It feeds on filamentous algae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corallivore</span> Animal that feeds on coral

A corallivore is an animal that feeds on coral. Corallivores are an important group of reef organism because they can influence coral abundance, distribution, and community structure. Corallivores feed on coral using a variety of unique adaptations and strategies. Known corallivores include certain mollusks, annelids, fish, crustaceans, flatworms and echinoderms. The first recorded evidence of corallivory was presented by Charles Darwin in 1842 during his voyage on HMS Beagle in which he found coral in the stomach of two Scarus parrotfish.

<i>Chlorurus spilurus</i> Species of fish

Chlorurus spilurus, known commonly as the Pacific daisy parrotfish or Pacific bullethead parrotfish and in Hawaiian called uhu, is a species of marine fish in the family Scaridae. The Pacific daisy parrotfish is widespread throughout the tropical waters of the Pacific.

<i>Scarus fuscopurpureus</i> Species of fish

Scarus fuscopurpureus, common name purple-brown parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, belonging to the class Actinopterygii. It is a parrotfish in the family Scaridae. It occurs in the western Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, the gulf of Aden and the Persain Gulf. Countries in which boarder these waters include, but are not limited to Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates.

<i>Sparisoma choati</i> Species of fish

Sparisoma choati, the West-African parrotfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish from the family Scaridae. It occurs at depths between 2 and 30m, along west African coastline and islands from Cape Verde and Senegal south to the offshore islands of the Gulf of Guinea and northern Angola. Like other parrotfish of the genus Sparisoma, it lives on rocky reefs and grazes on algae growing over hard substrate. It was named in honor of J. Howard Choat, in recognition of his extensive scientific work on parrotfishes.

<i>Scarus zelindae</i> Species of fish

Scarus zelindae is a species of fish of the Scaridae family in the order Perciformes. This species of Parrotfish can be brown, blue, green, yellow, and purple and can change their colors several times throughout their lifetime. They live for about 5–7 years and can be found in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, primarily in Brazilian waters.

References

  1. ↑ Rocha, L.A.; Choat, J.H.; Clements, K.D.; Russell, B.; Myers, R.; Lazuardi, M.E.; Muljadi, A.; Pardede, S.; Rahardjo, P. (2012). "Sparisoma viride". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2012: e.T190734A17779745. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T190734A17779745.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Sparisoma viride". FishBase . December 2019 version.
  3. 1 2 3 Humann, DeLoach (2002). Reef Fish Identification - Florida Caribbean Bahamas. New World Publications, Inc. ISBN   1-878348-30-2.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bruggemann, J. Henrich; van Oppen, Madeleine J.H.; Breeman, Anneke M. (March 17, 1994). "Foraging by the stoplight parrotfish Sparisoma viride. I. Food selection in different, socially determined habitats" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 106: 41–55. Bibcode:1994MEPS..106...41B. doi:10.3354/meps106041.
  5. 1 2 Cardwell, J.R.; Liley, N.R. (1991). "Hormonal control of sex and color change in the stoplight parrotfish, Sparisoma viride". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 81 (1): 7–20. doi:10.1016/0016-6480(91)90120-U. PMID   2026318.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Paddack, M. J.; Sponaugle, S.; Cowen, R. K. (December 2009). "Small-scale demographic variation in the stoplight parrotfish Sparisoma viride". Journal of Fish Biology. 75 (10): 2509–2526. Bibcode:2009JFBio..75.2509P. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02451.x. PMID   20738505.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hanley, Fred (1984-12-14). "Time-budgeting and foraging strategy of the stoplight parrotfish Sparisoma viride Bonnaterre, in Jamaica". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 83 (2): 159–177. Bibcode:1984JEMBE..83..159H. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(84)90043-1. ISSN   0022-0981.
  8. 1 2 Paddack, Mj; Sponaugle, S (2008-10-13). "Recruitment and habitat selection of newly settled Sparisoma viride to reefs with low coral cover". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 369: 205–212. Bibcode:2008MEPS..369..205P. doi: 10.3354/meps07632 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  9. ↑ Rotjan, Randi D.; Lewis, Sara M. (2008-09-11). "Impact of coral predators on tropical reefs". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 367: 73–91. Bibcode:2008MEPS..367...73R. doi: 10.3354/meps07531 . ISSN   0171-8630.
  10. ↑ Cardwell, J. “Androgen Control of Social Status in Males of a Wild Population of Stoplight Parrotfish, Sparisoma Viride (Scaridae)*1.” Hormones and Behavior, vol. 25, no. 1, Mar. 1991, pp. 1–18., doi:10.1016/0018-506x(91)90035-g.
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