Transport divide

Last updated
Access to jobs by public transit in Toronto Toronto transit access to jobs 2550x1650.png
Access to jobs by public transit in Toronto

Transport divide (also known as transport exclusion, transport disadvantage, transport deprivation, transportation divide, and mobility divide) refers to unequal access to transportation. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] It can result in the social exclusion of disadvantaged groups. [5] [7]

Contents

The concept covers issues ranging from unequal access to public transportation [1] [3] [5] to the unequal opportunities in global migration due to different visa policies as part of the global North–South divide. [4]

There are a number of aspects of the transport divide. People may have difficulty in using transport system because of physical barriers, such as a lack of accessibility for the disabled (lack of wheelchair access also impacts people with baby strollers or bicycles). Insufficient labeling can also cause problems for people who do not speak the local language. Financial barriers in the form of cost of services can prevent the poor from using the transport services. Distance barriers (in the form of distance from people's homes) can make some areas mostly inaccessible to people without access to a car, particularly when local public transportation is not well developed. Time barriers include problems caused by rush hour, but also time constraints caused by the need to arrange for care for members of the family (most often childcare), which when coupled with poor transport infrastructure can be a factor in reducing women's participation in the workforce. There are also fear barriers such as fear of being groped, leading to the creation of women-only passenger cars. Attempts to fix the fear barriers through increased surveillance and policing have however been linked to the lowering of the usage of such services by other groups, such as youth. [8] [5] [7]

Scholars and urban planners have proposed solutions ranging from improving public transportation and increasing accessibility, subsidizing private transportation, and changing the ways in which cities are designed to improve mobility. [9]

History

In the last 5 decades, globalization has had an impact on many urban regions. Economic restructuring has created urban economic cores with surrounding suburbs. Gentrification has forced disadvantaged individuals and households to move farther outside of the urban center, creating a need for accessible and stable transportation. This spatial and economic shift has worsened transport disadvantage. [10]

Housing policies have had a significant impact on the transport divide and mobility. The subsidization of larger housing estates in suburban areas has created a concentration of poverty in urban areas. [11] Subsidizing low-income housing in low-density areas creates isolated communities with limited access to transportation. It is very difficult to connect distant suburban areas through public transportation, yet low-income households struggle to have equitable access to private transportation. [12]

United States

There has historically been a transport divide for racial minorities in the United States in the form of segregation of public transportation systems. [13] Many buses were segregated until the 1956 Supreme Court decision, Browder v. Gayle . Other significant court cases related to segregation on public transportation are Keys v. Carolina Coach Co., Morgan v. Virginia, and Boynton v. Virginia.

In 1956, the US government passed the Interstate Highway Act, which provided funding to build thousands of miles of highways across the country. This act, along with the GI bill which provided support for veterans to become homeowners, facilitated suburbanization and urban sprawl. This made the US more car-oriented as cities became spread out and people commuted from suburbs into cities for work. This made owning a car critical for access to suburban housing and schools. [12] This suburbanization was not limited to the US; many cities in Europe developed the same way in the 20th century. [11]

Public transportation

Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested on February 22, 1956, which started the Montgomery bus boycott Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested on February 22, 1956, during the Montgomery bus boycott.jpg
Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested on February 22, 1956, which started the Montgomery bus boycott

Public transportation varies widely by country, and within countries, there is also striking divides. The US, for example, has a poor public transportation system compared to many European countries. Dense cities, such as New York or D.C., have more accessible public transportation, but some cities, such as Houston, are built around cars and highways and there is a lack of accessible and efficient public transportation. [14] Those without cars in these cities are at a disadvantage in finding and commuting to jobs. [15] Current policy favors those in suburbs with cars rather than poorer, urban populations.

Inadequate public transportation is central to the transport divide. [16] Public transportation provides access to employment, education, social activities, health services, food, among other necessities. Those without private transportation such as cars often rely on public transport. Yet, public transportation is often underfunded. Additionally, it may not serve all populations equitably. [17] Those on the periphery of urban centers may struggle to find efficient public transportation if they do not live close to their places of employment. [18]

Disability

Public transportation has traditionally not been designed for those with disabilities. [1] The journey cycle of public transportation has several elements, such as traveling to the transit station, purchasing tickets, finding the correct service, boarding and disembarking, that often are not accessible for those with disabilities. [1] Often, cars are the only feasible option for those with disabilities, which can be an additional expense and burden. Those with cars may struggle to find accessible parking or accommodations such as ramps at destinations. [2] Accessibility to public transportation in Low and Middle Income Countries (LMIC) is especially precarious, which has significant consequences for access to health services, education, and employment. [3] One study in Cambodia piloted a Journey Access Tool (JAT) which identifies barriers to public transportation for those with disabilities. This tool has the potential to improve discussion about barriers to transportation and increase awareness about accessibility issues. [3]

Private transportation

Saab 900 turned in for CFC credit. Cash for Clunkers - Saab 900.JPG
Saab 900 turned in for CFC credit.

There has been an explosion in car ownership within the past few decades, and there are expected to be 2 billion vehicles on the road around the globe by 2030. [19] There are many negative consequences to such widespread car ownership, such as climate change, urban sprawl, health risks, and traffic that hinders economic growth and commutes. [15] However, the lack of a vehicle contributes to inequality, especially in car-dependent societies such as the US. Mattioli (2014) describes two types of transport disadvantage: those who lack a car and those for whom car ownership is a significant burden (forced car ownership). [20] Those in the bottom half of income distributions are the most affected by car ownership as a significant portion of their income is allocated to purchasing and maintaining vehicles. The cost of car ownership is often underestimated; car insurance, registration fees, parking, gas, and repairs contribute to this heavy burden of ownership. [21] The bottom quintile of income in the US spent about 34% of their annual income on transportation. [22] This type of disadvantage has also been referred to as "forced" car ownership as it creates a significant burden for households yet they require a car to remain employed or engage in other necessary activities. [23]

There are many external costs to widespread car usage and automobile dependency. These costs to society include noise pollution, air pollution, climate change, congestion, and automobile accidents. [24]

Black and Latino individuals in the US have lower rates of car ownership, and car ownership is associated with increased access to employment, higher salaries, and decreased ethnic disparities in unemployment rates. [25] One study in LA found that car ownership increased employment by 9%. [26] It is difficult to commute on public transportation from urban centers to suburban job opportunities, which reduces employment opportunities for those in urban areas without cars. [25]

Global mobility divide

Visa waiver policies have changed in the last 5 decades as globalization and technological innovation has increased ease of mobility. However, those from OECD and wealthy countries have more mobility rights and higher access to visa waivers than those from less wealthy countries. This has created a "global mobility divide" as citizens of certain countries of more mobility rights than others. [27] Shachar (2009) uses the term "birthright lottery" to refer to how one’s ability to move throughout the world is determined by one’s country of birth. [28]

Rural concerns

The vast majority of rural communities do not have any transportation alternatives whatsoever. People in rural communities may not be able to drive for many reasons, including age, disability, and socioeconomic status. However, "mobility remains a vital part of the well-being of rural-living, older adults and transportation disadvantaged persons.” [29] Transportation is essential to daily life as every person must leave their home at one point or another to go to work, grocery shop, visit the doctor, or go to school. This noted, there are countless people left trying to get a ride because they can not get somewhere themselves. This places a large burden on individuals as people resort to informal networks to get around. Informal networks may include people taking out unofficial loans from friends and family to purchase a vehicle or carpooling with a coworker or neighbor. For many people, however, these informal networks are the only option as car payments are high and rural communities are not walkable. This burden impacts the quality of everyday life of the individual as well as everyone involved.

Access to vehicles and public transportation is linked to neighborhood satisfaction. When an individual can navigate the place they get around on their own, they are more likely to enjoy living there. For example, cars make it easier for people to spend time with their friends and families. Rural and suburban areas make it hard for people without a car to get around. A Boston mother involved in a 2010 study on transportation access was quoted saying, “How am I going to get from here to the doctor's today? I don't have money for a bus, which is an hour-and-a-half walk. And if it's pouring rain and cold, with two babies, you can't walk an hour to the bus stop anyway.” [30] Stress involving transportation is higher for people in rural communities. People with vehicles are 1.6 times more satisfied with their neighborhoods than those without cars. [30]

In rural communities, people who lack access to a vehicle are more likely to skip doctor’s appointments. Transportation is a social determinant of health, meaning that the inability to afford transportation correlates to negative health outcomes. [31] While programs like Medicaid and others have attempted to combat this issue, there are millions of uninsured Americans who can not access these services as a result. Some rural communities have instituted transportation services that combine ride-share and shuttle practices to serve older adults and disadvantaged persons. Project TRIP (Transporting Residents with Innovative Practices) began in 2015 in a rural area of North Carolina. It is privately funded and “provides free individualized transportation to health care appointments, pharmacies, grocery stores/food banks, and other places that support health and well-being.” [32] The program lifted some of the financial burdens off of these people’s shoulders as well as allowed them to attend important medical appointments without stress. Programs like TRIP have seen positive outcomes for rural residents, however, funding remains a concern for many.

Effects

Transport disadvantage is strongly associated with increased social exclusion (measured by factors such as income, political participation, social support) and decreased wellbeing. [33] Transport disadvantage can also hurt wellbeing by limiting access to resources and social services. It also hinders relationships and feelings of community, which are very significant to wellbeing. [33] Socially disadvantaged neighborhoods are more likely to have transport disadvantages. Another effect of transport disadvantage is increased exposure to traffic, which has risks through air pollution and car crashes. Racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to live in areas with more congestion and experience negative health effects. [34] Such patterns and disparities are referred to as environmental racism. One study in Australia found that transport disadvantage is associated with an increased perception of crime in a neighborhood, worsened physical and mental health, less engagement in civic and social activities, and lower overall wellbeing. [35]

Transport disadvantage affects populations disparately. The quality of life of elderly populations is very dependent on access to transportation as transportation allows for social interaction and hobbies. [33]

Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, another dimension of the transport divide is health risk. [36] Those who can travel in private cars are at less risk for contracting COVID-19, compared to those who only have access to public transportation. [37] Additionally, those with disabilities may have increased vulnerability to COVID-19 in addition to experiencing more barriers to accessing transportation. This pandemic made using transportation more difficult for those with disabilities by disruption to safe and stable transport, lack of communication about updates to public transport, and lack of assistance. [36]

Potential solutions

Funding for public transportation has been placed on the back burner. Transportation officials gathered together at the National Conference on Rural Public and Intercity Bus Transportation in 2016 to discuss an array of transportation concerns. Their main goal was to achieve an understanding of the research and policy needs related to rural transit for older people and the transportation disadvantaged. [38] In order to gauge opinions on the topic, a survey was distributed to attendees. Most felt that the government was not doing enough to adequately address the needs of older adults and disadvantaged persons. In response to this issue, many felt that the public and private sectors should work together to fund transportation alternatives in rural communities.

Some countries have public aid programs that subsidize cars for poor households. However, there is criticism over these programs because of environmental concerns as well concerns about defunding public transportation. [39] Other scholars proposed technological solutions, such as a demand responsive virtual transport market in rural communities. Some urban planners advocate for denser, mixed-use city neighborhoods that are more people friendly with more public transportation and less traffic.

One solution to car-related transport disadvantage is providing and encouraging use of alternative forms of transportation. Biking and walking can be encouraged through campaigns or bike sharing initiatives, but these campaigns are fairly limited to more compact cities. The car-free movement aims to reduce the centrality of car usage in society through urban planning and public transportation. New urbanism, smart growth, and transit-oriented development are three approaches that aim to make cities more walkable, increase urban density, reduce suburban sprawl, and decrease the transport divide. [40] [41] These sustainability-focused movements hope to improve options for housing, employment, and transportation for more equitable societies.

Ride-hailing apps such as Uber and Lyft are on the rise, especially in Urban and Suburban areas. In recent years these companies have attempted to expand in rural areas but are dealing with the reality that these areas have lower population densities and longer travel distances. [42] Startups and other tech companies have begun to emerge to combat this issue. May Mobility, an Ann Arbor, Michigan-based autonomous vehicle company is striving toward a greener, innovative future. May Mobility’s goal of providing free, shared rides to people is an active solution for people facing the plight of transportation access.

Public transportation in transport-deprived areas can improve mobility, economic opportunity, reduce household costs, and generally improve communities. [43] Some scholars argue that investing more in public transportation only helps those who are transport disadvantaged if public transportation is targeted at specific groups and provides flexible services. [9] Transportation is essential to the livelihood of all people; everyone needs transportation. It is a universal issue that policymakers may be able to find common ground on should it become a larger issue.

Spaceflight

Since the beginning of the Space Age countries other than the countries with the most developed spaceflight capabilities have argued that space is for everyone and the access to it should not be controlled by those who have the capabilities to go there. [44]

Additionally New Space entrepreneurs have argued in favour of companies to establish humanity as multiplanetary species, which has been criticized for being an escapist mission, limited to few, based on unknown criteria and offering escape as a solution to the problems on Earth instead of working on the problems. [45]

See also

Transport:

Transit:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport economics</span> Branch of economics

Transport economics is a branch of economics founded in 1959 by American economist John R. Meyer that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector. It has strong links to civil engineering. Transport economics differs from some other branches of economics in that the assumption of a spaceless, instantaneous economy does not hold. People and goods flow over networks at certain speeds. Demands peak. Advance ticket purchase is often induced by lower fares. The networks themselves may or may not be competitive. A single trip may require the bundling of services provided by several firms, agencies and modes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural area</span> Geographic area outside towns and cities

In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas and areas with forestry are typically described as rural, as well as other areas lacking substantial development. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Built environment</span> Human-made space in which people live, work and recreate on a day-to-day basis

The term built environment refers to human-made conditions and is often used in architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, public health, sociology, and anthropology, among others. These curated spaces provide the setting for human activity and were created to fulfill human desires and needs. The term can refer to a plethora of components including the traditionally associated buildings, cities, public infrastructure, transportation, open space, as well as more conceptual components like farmlands, dammed rivers, wildlife management, and even domesticated animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Societal impacts of cars</span> Overview of the effects of cars on various societies

Since the start of the twentieth century, the role of cars has become highly important, though controversial. They are used throughout the world and have become the most popular mode of transport in many of the more developed countries. In developing countries cars are fewer and the effects of the car on society are less visible, however they are nonetheless significant. The spread of cars built upon earlier changes in transport brought by railways and bicycles. They introduced sweeping changes in employment patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and the distribution of goods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban sprawl</span> Expansion of auto-oriented, low-density development in suburbs

Urban sprawl is defined as "the spreading of urban developments on undeveloped land near a more or less densely populated city". Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated. In addition to describing a special form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city. Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside. The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable transport</span> Transport with sustainable social and environmental impacts

Sustainable transport refers to ways of transportation that are sustainable in terms of their social and environmental impacts. Components for evaluating sustainability include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport; the source of energy; and the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport. Transport operations and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation. Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as the environmental and climate impacts of the system. Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from direct burning of fossil fuels. In 2019, about 95% of the fuel came from fossil sources. The main source of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union is transportation. In 2019 it contributes to about 31% of global emissions and 24% of emissions in the EU. In addition, up to the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions have only increased in this one sector. Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector. Road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transit-oriented development</span> Urban planning prioritising transit

In urban planning, transit-oriented development (TOD) is a type of urban development that maximizes the amount of residential, business and leisure space within walking distance of public transport. It promotes a symbiotic relationship between dense, compact urban form and public transport use. In doing so, TOD aims to increase public transport ridership by reducing the use of private cars and by promoting sustainable urban growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transportation demand management</span> Policies to reduce transportation demands

Transportation demand management or travel demand management (TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to increase the efficiency of transportation systems, that reduce travel demand, or to redistribute this demand in space or in time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food desert</span> Area that has limited access to nutritious food

A food desert is an area that has limited access to food that is plentiful, affordable, or nutritious. In contrast, an area with greater access to supermarkets and vegetable shops with fresh foods may be called a food oasis. The designation considers the type and the quality of food available to the population, in addition to the accessibility of the food through the size and the proximity of the food stores.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Car dependency</span> Concept that city layouts favor automobiles over other modes of transportation

Car dependency is a phenomenon in urban planning wherein existing and planned infrastructure prioritizes the use of automobiles over other modes of transportation, such as public transport, bicycles, and walking. It leads to a more polluting transport system compared to systems where modes are treated more equally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walkability</span> How accessible a space is to walking

In urban planning, walkability is the accessibility of amenities by foot. It is based on the idea that urban spaces should be more than just transport corridors designed for maximum vehicle throughput. Instead, it should be relatively complete livable spaces that serve a variety of uses, users, and transportation modes and reduce the need for cars for travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Active mobility</span> Unmotorised transport powered by activity

Active mobility, soft mobility, active travel, active transport or active transportation is the transport of people or goods, through non-motorized means, based around human physical activity. The best-known forms of active mobility are walking and cycling, though other modes include running, rowing, skateboarding, kick scooters and roller skates. Due to its prevalence, cycling is sometimes considered separately from the other forms of active mobility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural poverty</span> Poverty in rural areas, which are often less developed than urban areas worldwide

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Public transport</span> Shared transportation service for use by the general public

Public transport is a system of transport for passengers by group travel systems available for use by the general public unlike private transport, typically managed on a schedule, operated on established routes, and that may charge a posted fee for each trip. There is no rigid definition of which kinds of transport are included, and air travel is often not thought of when discussing public transport—dictionaries use wording like "buses, trains, etc." Examples of public transport include city buses, trolleybuses, trams and passenger trains, rapid transit and ferries. Public transport between cities is dominated by airlines, coaches, and intercity rail. High-speed rail networks are being developed in many parts of the world.

The social determinants of health in poverty describe the factors that affect impoverished populations' health and health inequality. Inequalities in health stem from the conditions of people's lives, including living conditions, work environment, age, and other social factors, and how these affect people's ability to respond to illness. These conditions are also shaped by political, social, and economic structures. The majority of people around the globe do not meet their potential best health because of a "toxic combination of bad policies, economics, and politics". Daily living conditions work together with these structural drivers to result in the social determinants of health.

Mobility as a service (MaaS) is a type of service that enables users to plan, book, and pay for multiple types of mobility services through an integrated platform. Transportation services from public and private transportation providers are combined through a unified gateway, usually via an app or website, that creates and manages the trip and payments, including subscriptions, with a single account. The key concept behind MaaS is to offer travelers flexible mobility solutions based on their travel needs, thus "mobility as a service" also refers to the broader concept of a shift away from personally-owned modes of transportation and towards mobility provided as a service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Cervero</span> Sustainable transportation author

Robert Cervero is an author, consultant, and educator in sustainable transportation policy and planning. During his years as a faculty member in city and regional planning at the University of California, Berkeley, he gained recognition for his work in the sphere of urban transportation and land-use planning. His research has spanned the topics of induced demand, transit-oriented development (TOD), transit villages, paratransit, car sharing, and suburban growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transit desert</span> Area lacking in transit

A transit desert is an area with limited transportation supply. Developed from the concept of food deserts, various methods have been proposed to measure transit deserts. Transit deserts are generally characterized by poor public transportation options and possibly poor bike, sidewalk, or road infrastructure. The lack of transportation options present in transit deserts may have negative effects of people’s health, job prospects, and economic mobility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Accessibility (transport)</span> Measure of ease of reaching a destination

In transport planning, accessibility refers to a measure of the ease of reaching destinations or activities distributed in space, e.g. around a city or country. Accessibility is generally associated with a place of origin. A place with "high accessibility" is one from which many destinations can be reached or destinations can be reached with relative ease. "Low accessibility" implies that relatively few destinations can be reached for a given amount of time/effort/cost or that reaching destinations is more difficult or costly from that place.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walking city</span> One small enough to navigate on foot

A walking city or walkable city is a type of city that is created to avoid internal transportation, and therefore be small enough that a person can use walking to navigate the city. It is characterized by narrow, often winding streets. Its transport system is inherently egalitarian, with no one being disadvantaged by a lack of transport, unlike modern automotive cities. Walkability within areas positively impacts equity, sustainability, health, social benefits, less demand on other modes, economic development, and enjoyment.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Roger L. Kemp; Carl J. Stephani (17 February 2015). Urban Transportation Innovations Worldwide: A Handbook of Best Practices Outside the United States. McFarland. pp. 49–. ISBN   978-0-7864-7075-4.
  2. 1 2 Report of the Fifth Session of the World Urban Forum, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: The Right to the City : Bridging the Urban Divide, 22-26 March, 2010. UN-HABITAT. 2010. p. 62.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Amedee, George (2005). "Closing the Transportation Divide: Linking TANF and Transportation". Race, Gender & Class. 12 (3/4): 86–106. ISSN   1082-8354. JSTOR   41675264.
  4. 1 2 Mau, Steffen; Gülzau, Fabian; Laube, Lena; Zaun, Natascha (2015-07-03). "The Global Mobility Divide: How Visa Policies Have Evolved over Time" (PDF). Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 41 (8): 1192–1213. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2015.1005007. ISSN   1369-183X. S2CID   143214964.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Church, A; Frost, M; Sullivan, K (2000-07-01). "Transport and social exclusion in London". Transport Policy. 7 (3): 195–205. doi:10.1016/S0967-070X(00)00024-X. ISSN   0967-070X.
  6. ↑ Power, Anne (2012-03-01). "Social inequality, disadvantaged neighbourhoods and transport deprivation: an assessment of the historical influence of housing policies". Journal of Transport Geography. Social Impacts and Equity Issues in Transport. 21: 39–48. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.01.016. ISSN   0966-6923.
  7. 1 2 Kamruzzaman, Md; Yigitcanlar, Tan; Yang, Jay; Mohamed, Mohd Afzan (July 2016). "Measures of Transport-Related Social Exclusion: A Critical Review of the Literature". Sustainability. 8 (7): 696. doi: 10.3390/su8070696 .
  8. ↑ Julian Hine; Fiona Mitchell (2 March 2017). Transport Disadvantage and Social Exclusion: Exclusionary Mechanisms in Transport in Urban Scotland. Taylor & Francis. pp. 25–. ISBN   978-1-351-87775-6.
  9. 1 2 Mattioli, Giulio; Colleoni, Matteo (2016), Pucci, Paola; Colleoni, Matteo (eds.), "Transport Disadvantage, Car Dependence and Urban Form", Understanding Mobilities for Designing Contemporary Cities, Research for Development, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 171–190, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22578-4_10, ISBN   978-3-319-22578-4 , retrieved 2021-03-29
  10. ↑ Jago., Dodson (2004). Transport disavantage and social status : a review of literature and methods. Urban Policy Program, Griffith University. ISBN   1-920952-18-7. OCLC   781519117.
  11. 1 2 Power, Anne (2012-03-01). "Social inequality, disadvantaged neighbourhoods and transport deprivation: an assessment of the historical influence of housing policies". Journal of Transport Geography. 21: 39–48. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.01.016. ISSN   0966-6923.
  12. 1 2 Power, Anne (2012-03-01). "Social inequality, disadvantaged neighbourhoods and transport deprivation: an assessment of the historical influence of housing policies". Journal of Transport Geography. Social Impacts and Equity Issues in Transport. 21: 39–48. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.01.016. ISSN   0966-6923.
  13. ↑ "Transportation Protests: 1841 - 1992". Civil Rights Teaching. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  14. ↑ Glaeser, Edward L. (2011). Triumph of the city : how our greatest invention makes us richer, smarter, greener, healthier, and happier. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN   978-1-59420-277-3. OCLC   650211168.
  15. 1 2 Catherine, Lutz (2010). Carjacked : the culture of the automobile and its effect on our lives. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN   978-0-230-61813-8. OCLC   759879997.
  16. ↑ White, Gillian B. (2015-05-16). "Our Struggling Public Transportation System Is Failing America's Poor". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  17. ↑ "Transport mobility and deprivation in inter-urban areas". Transportation Research Part A: General. 15 (2): 199. March 1981. doi:10.1016/0191-2607(81)90106-0. ISSN   0191-2607.
  18. ↑ "Transport and Inequality: Why Disparities in Access Matter in Cities |". TheCityFix. 2020-08-10. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  19. ↑ Daniel., Sperling (2010). Two billion cars : driving toward sustainability. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-973723-9. OCLC   619082161.
  20. ↑ Mattioli, Giulio (2014-07-03). "Where Sustainable Transport and Social Exclusion Meet: Households Without Cars and Car Dependence in Great Britain". Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning. 16 (3): 379–400. doi:10.1080/1523908X.2013.858592. hdl: 2164/4945 . ISSN   1523-908X. S2CID   53506624.
  21. ↑ Lutz, Catherine (2014). "The U.S. car colossus and the production of inequality". American Ethnologist. 41 (2): 232–245. doi: 10.1111/amet.12072 . ISSN   1548-1425.
  22. ↑ "US Consumer Expenditure Report" (PDF). US Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2012.
  23. ↑ Currie, Graham; Delbosc, Alexa (2011-01-01), Currie, Graham (ed.), "Transport Disadvantage: A Review", New Perspectives and Methods in Transport and Social Exclusion Research, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 15–25, doi:10.1108/9781780522012-002, ISBN   978-1-78052-200-5 , retrieved 2021-04-25
  24. ↑ "Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector" (PDF). Delft. 2008.
  25. 1 2 Raphael, Steven; Stoll, Michael A. (2001). "Can Boosting Minority Car-Ownership Rates Narrow Inter-Racial Employment Gaps?". Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs. 2001 (1): 99–145. doi:10.1353/urb.2001.0013. ISSN   1533-4449. S2CID   12043775.
  26. ↑ Ong, Paul M. (2002). "Car ownership and welfare-to-work". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 21 (2): 239–252. doi:10.1002/pam.10025. ISSN   1520-6688. S2CID   153451126.
  27. ↑ Mau, Steffen; Gülzau, Fabian; Laube, Lena; Zaun, Natascha (2015-07-03). "The Global Mobility Divide: How Visa Policies Have Evolved over Time". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 41 (8): 1192–1213. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2015.1005007. ISSN   1369-183X. S2CID   143214964.
  28. ↑ SHACHAR, AYELET (2009). The Birthright Lottery: Citizenship and Global Inequality. Harvard University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctvjhzr8r. ISBN   978-0-674-03271-2. JSTOR   j.ctvjhzr8r.
  29. ↑ Dawkins, Casey; Sik Jeon, Jae; Rolf, Pendall (1 April 2015). "Transportation Access, Rental Vouchers, and Neighborhood Satisfaction: Evidence From the Moving to Opportunity Experiment". Housing Policy Debate. 25 (3): 497–530. doi:10.1080/10511482.2014.986662. S2CID   153865182.
  30. 1 2 Dawkins, Casey; Jeon, Jae Sik; Pendall, Rolf (2015-07-03). "Transportation Access, Rental Vouchers, and Neighborhood Satisfaction: Evidence From the Moving to Opportunity Experiment". Housing Policy Debate. 25 (3): 497–530. doi:10.1080/10511482.2014.986662. ISSN   1051-1482. S2CID   153865182.
  31. ↑ Schwartz, Abby; Richman, Alice; Scott, Mallary; Liu, Haiyong; White, Weyling; Doherty, Caroline (12 October 2022). "Increasing Access to Care for the Underserved: Voices of Riders, Drivers, & Staff of a Rural Transportation Program". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (20): 13539. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192013539 . PMC   9603744 . PMID   36294124 – via MDPI.
  32. ↑ Schwartz, Abby J.; Richman, Alice R.; Scott, Mallary; Liu, Haiyong; White, Weyling; Doherty, Caroline (19 October 2022). "Increasing Access to Care for the Underserved: Voices of Riders, Drivers, & Staff of a Rural Transportation Program". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (20): 13539. doi: 10.3390/ijerph192013539 . ISSN   1660-4601. PMC   9603744 . PMID   36294124.
  33. 1 2 3 Currie, Graham; Delbosc, Alexa (2010-11-01). "Modelling the social and psychological impacts of transport disadvantage". Transportation. 37 (6): 953–966. doi:10.1007/s11116-010-9280-2. ISSN   1572-9435. S2CID   144770619.
  34. ↑ The Lancet Planetary Health (November 2018). "Environmental racism: time to tackle social injustice". The Lancet Planetary Health. 2 (11): e462. doi: 10.1016/s2542-5196(18)30219-5 . ISSN   2542-5196. PMID   30396431.
  35. ↑ Ma, Liang; Kent, Jennifer; Mulley, Corinne (2018-01-05). "Transport disadvantage, social exclusion, and subjective well-being: The role of the neighborhood environment—evidence from Sydney, Australia". Journal of Transport and Land Use. 11 (1). doi: 10.5198/jtlu.2018.1008 . hdl: 11299/200017 . ISSN   1938-7849.
  36. 1 2 Cochran, Abigail L. (2020-11-01). "Impacts of COVID-19 on access to transportation for people with disabilities". Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 8: 100263. doi: 10.1016/j.trip.2020.100263 . ISSN   2590-1982.
  37. ↑ "Amid the pandemic, public transit is highlighting inequalities in cities". The Washington Post. May 15, 2020.
  38. ↑ Mjelde, James W.; Dudensing, Rebekka M.; Battista, Geoffrey; Brooks, Jonathan; Carrillo, Maria; Counsil, Blane; Giri, Anil; Kim, Man-Keun; Pyrialakou, V. Dimitra (19 May 2020). "Rural Transportation Conference Participants' Opinions and Concerns Pertaining to Transit for Older Adults". SAGE Open. 10 (2): 215824402092403. doi: 10.1177/2158244020924036 . ISSN   2158-2440. S2CID   219450190.
  39. ↑ Fol, Sylvie; Dupuy, Gabriel; Coutard, Olivier (2007). "Transport Policy and the Car Divide in the UK, the US and France: Beyond the Environmental Debate". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 31 (4): 802–818. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00755.x. ISSN   1468-2427.
  40. ↑ Transit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects. 2004-08-25. doi:10.17226/23360. ISBN   978-0-309-08795-7.
  41. ↑ ""Charter of the New Urbanism"", The Urban Design Reader, Routledge, pp. 348–351, 2013-05-07, doi:10.4324/9780203094235-40, ISBN   978-0-203-09423-5 , retrieved 2021-04-26
  42. ↑ JIANG, JINGJING (4 January 2019). "More Americans are using ride-hailing apps". Pew Research Center.
  43. ↑ Lucas, Karen; Tyler, Sophie; Christodoulou, Georgina (2008). The value of new transport in deprived areas. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. ISBN   978-1-85935-658-6.
  44. ↑ Durrani, Haris (2019-07-19). "Is Spaceflight Colonialism?". The Nation. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  45. ↑ McKinson, Kimberley D. (2020-09-30). "Do Black Lives Matter in Outer Space?". SAPIENS. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.