Tuberolachnus salignus

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Tuberolachnus salignus
Tuberolachnus-salignus2.jpg
Tuberolachnus salignus, showing dorsal tubercle
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Sternorrhyncha
Family: Aphididae
Genus: Tuberolachnus
Species:
T. salignus
Binomial name
Tuberolachnus salignus
Gmelin, 1790

Tuberolachnus salignus, the giant willow aphid, is a species of aphid, in the genus Tuberolachnus . They are reputed to be the largest aphids, with a body length of up to 5.8mm. [1] [2] First described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1790, it feeds on many species of willow (Salix species), and has one known host-specific parasite, Pauesia salignae. [2]

Contents

Tuberolachnus salignus does not require a male for reproduction. Only females have ever been recorded, which suggests that reproduction is parthenogenetic and all offspring produced are genetically identical clones. [3]

Description

Adults exhibit a pear-shaped body with dark brown/grayish coloration. [4] This aphid species has distinct black dots that form rows along its body. [4] Along the dorsal side of their abdomen, about 2/3 of the way down, T. salignus displays a defining single large conical tubercle or bump that resembles a thorn which can grow to 0.2-0.3 mm. [5] [6] Closer to the posterior and along the sides of the body are two smaller black cone structures (siphunculi). [4]

Tuberolachnus salignus reproduces solely through parthenogenesis so all aphid adults are female. [5] [7] [8] [9] Adults can be either winged or wingless. [4] The two pairs of wings are clear with a dark brown edge along the forewing. [4] When looking at T. salignus under a microscope the presence of numerous tiny hairs is apparent. [4] [5] This gives the abdomen a grayish-gold hue. [4] [5] Adult T. salignus has three pairs of legs that are primarily a dark brownish color, but smaller, red/orange sections are also present. [4] [5] They also have a pair of antennae that are less than half of the aphid's body length. [4] [5]

Range

Natural global range

Tuberolachnus salignus is a cosmopolitan species. [7] [10] They exist anywhere that willow species grow naturally or are cultivated. [7] [10] The giant willow aphid originated in parts of Asia but has now spread to all parts of the globe (except Antarctica). [7] [10] There is no known exact place of origin for this aphid species, but it is believed to be somewhere within Japan and Korea. [9] [11] The only known parasitoid of this species is endemic to Japan, leading to the belief that this may be the place of their origin. [9] [11]

Tuberolachnus salignus is now found in all parts of New Zealand where willow species are present. [9] [11] It only recently made it to New Zealand, with the first confirmed sighting in December 2013 in Auckland. [9] [11]

Habitat

This species is almost entirely dependent on willow trees. [9] [11] They live on the bark of these trees and feed on their sap. [9] [11] These giant aphids survive year-round with the most activity being in late summer and early fall. [5] [9] [11] Their population numbers are known to be largely weather and temperature related. [12] Following instances of large amounts of rain, T. salignus populations have been known to increase rapidly. [3]

Ecology

Life cycle/phenology

Tuberolachnus salignus has a generation period of 2–3 weeks, which is largely dependent on temperature. [6] [3] Once hatched, the aphid larvae go through four stages of development until they reach their adult forms. [5] [13] Ideal temperatures for T. salignus generation range from 17.5 to 22.5 degrees Celsius. [6] It takes two weeks for nymphs to become adults, with adults living an additional five weeks after that. [5] Mature aphids can produce anywhere from 35 to 71 offspring. [5] [14] [15] Generally, T. salignus is most active in the warmer months, with populations peaking in late summer and early autumn. [6] [3] In colder months, the overall fecundity decreases but colonies are still active. [6] [3] In the spring, colonies are usually not visible. [5] [6] [3] During this time, it is thought T. salignus retreats behind the willow tree bark or into the ground to escape the harsh climate. [5] [6] [3]

Tuberolachnus salignus reproduces via parthenogenesis. [5] [7] [8] [9] Resulting in a population consisting of all females. [5] [7] [8] [9] All offspring are identical genetic clones of their mothers. [5] [7] [8] [9] In turn, there are no mating behaviors that occupy these aphids as they do not participate in sexual reproduction. [5] [7] [8] [9]

Diet and foraging

Tuberolachnus salignus is known to feed primarily on willow and Salix tree species such as the white willow ( Salix alba ), the common sallow ( Salix cinerea') [16] and the Indian willow ( Salix tetrasperma ). [17] It has also been recorded on Quince ( Cydonia oblonga ), [18] Apple ( Malus spp.) [18] and Poplar ( Populus spp.) [18]

Like many herbivorous Hemiptera, T. salignus uses modified mouthparts to pierce the phloem of plants and feed on its sap. [4] [5] As the name suggests, giant willow aphids prefer willows of the Salix species but have been known to feed on poplar, apple, and pear species in New Zealand. [4] [5] They prefer to feed during the day and during the warmer hours. [5] When feeding, the aphid will climb to the tip of the willow where the shoot begins. [4] [5] The flesh of the plant is softer here, allowing the aphid to inject its stylets into the plant's phloem. [4] [5]

Tuberolachnus salignus uses two stylets to extract the sap flowing within the phloem. [4] [5] One is used to inject saliva into the phloem, while the other is used to ingest the sap and saliva mixture. [4] [5] Willow sap is an extremely nutritious food source, as it provides critical sugars and water to various parts of the willow tree. [4] [5] As the aphid feeds, it is ingesting an incredible amount of these sugars and water, so much so that it needs to excrete them to avoid overfeeding. [4] [5] [7] [9] These are excreted as a sugary liquid known as honeydew, which attracts various other insect species such as honeybees, wasps, and ants. [4] [5] [7] [9] These other species will feed on the honeydew that is excreted from T. salignus. [4] [5] [7] [9]

Predators, prey, and parasites

Due to the almost exclusive feeding of willow sap by T. salignus, the honeydew that is produced as a result attracts numerous types of insects. [4] [5] [7] [9] Wasps, bees, ants, flies and coccinellids have all been observed to feed on honeydew of this species. [4] [5] [7] [9] These insects feed only on the honeydew, not the actual aphid. [4] [5] [7] [9] In New Zealand, Pauesia nigrovaria was introduced as a biocontrol parasitoid of T. salignus in 2020. [19] Elsewhere, like North America and parts of Europe, parasitic wasps, lady beetles, hover fly maggots, lace wings are frequent predators. [5]

Interactions with humans

Tuberolachnus salignus has only recently come into the limelight in New Zealand. [9] [11] Upon arriving here in 2013, cause for alarm was immediately raised. [9] [11] As previously noted, these giant aphids feed almost exclusively on willow species. [9] [11] As T. salignus populations begin to rapidly grow on the willow tree, many negative impacts start to become apparent. [9] [11]

Willow trees are an important group of plants in New Zealand. [7] [3] While they are not native, they are used in many facets of society in order to increase land stabilization and reduce soil erosion. [7] [3] Historically, willows have been planted along riverbanks and on particularly sloping land to help keep the soil beneath from eroding away. [7] [3] Furthermore, willows play an important roll in honey production throughout New Zealand. [7] [3] [20] The flowers of willows are rich with pollen and nectar and attract honeybees. [7] [20] In other parts of the world, such as the U.K., large amounts of willows are cultivated for biomass production. [20] With the presence of large T. salignus colonies on willow trees, many of the contributions listed above are severely hindered. [7] [3] [20] Additionally, honeybees that forage on T. salignus honeydew have poorer health and produce a lower quantity and quality of honey. [7]

References

  1. ↑ "Tuberolachnus salignus" . Retrieved 26 November 2016.
  2. 1 2 "Giant Willow Aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) Have we solved one of its mysteries?" . Retrieved 26 November 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Jones, Trevor G.; Min Tun, Kyaw; Minor, Maria; Clavijo McCormick, Andrea (November 2021). "The giant willow aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) and its effects on the survival and growth of willows". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 23 (4): 420–428. doi:10.1111/afe.12443.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Martin, NA (1 August 2017). "Giant willow aphid - Tuberolachnus salignus. Interesting Insects and other Invertebrates". Landcare Research. Retrieved March 29, 2023.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Bochniarz, Alina (2020). "Giant willow aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus Gmelin, 1790) – a literature review". Polish Journal of Agronomy. 43: 113–124. doi:10.26114/pja.iung.449.2020.43.11.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sopow, Stephanie L.; Jones, Trevor; McIvor, Ian; McLean, John A.; Pawson, Stephen M. (August 2017). "Potential impacts of Tuberolachnus salignus (giant willow aphid) in New Zealand and options for control: Impacts of giant willow aphid in NZ". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 19 (3): 225–234. doi:10.1111/afe.12211.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Tun, Kyaw Min; Minor, Maria; Jones, Trevor; Clavijo McCormick, Andrea (August 2021). "Effect of willow cultivar and plant age on the melezitose content of giant willow aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) honeydew". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 23 (3): 261–268. doi:10.1111/afe.12428.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Aradottir, Gudbjorg I.; Hanley, Steven J.; Collins, C. Matilda; Dawson, Kevin J.; Karp, Angela; Leather, Simon R.; Shield, Ian; Harrington, Richard (May 2012). "Population genetics of Tuberolachnus salignus, an obligate parthenogenetic aphid". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 14 (2): 197–205. doi:10.1111/j.1461-9563.2011.00559.x.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Sopow, Stephanie; Wardhaugh, Carl; Turner, Rebecca; Gresham, Belinda; Sutherland, Roanne; Woodall, Georgia; Withers, Toni (December 2021). "Host specificity testing of Pauesia nigrovaria (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae) for classical biological control of Tuberolachnus salignus (Hemiptera: Aphididae: Lachninae) in New Zealand". BioControl. 66 (6): 739–751. Bibcode:2021BioCo..66..739S. doi:10.1007/s10526-021-10107-5.
  10. 1 2 3 Collins, C. Matilda; Fellowes, Mark D. E.; Sage, Rufus B.; Leather, Simon R. (August 2001). "Host selection and performance of the giant willow aphid, Tuberolachnus salignus Gmelin – implications for pest management". Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 3 (3): 183–189. doi:10.1046/j.1461-9555.2001.00105.x.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Swears, Rosemary M.; Manley-Harris, Merilyn (May 2021). "Composition and potential as a prebiotic functional food of a Giant Willow Aphid (Tuberolachnus salignus) honeydew honey produced in New Zealand". Food Chemistry. 345: 128662. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128662. PMID   33310258.
  12. ↑ Matilda Collins, C.; Leather, Simon R. (19 June 2001). "Effect of temperature on fecundity and development of the Giant Willow Aphid, Tuberolachnus salignus (Sternorrhyncha: Aphididae)". European Journal of Entomology. 98 (2): 177–182. doi:10.14411/eje.2001.033.
  13. ↑ Llewellyn, M.; Rashid, R.; Leckstein, P. (1974). "The Ecological Energetics of the Willow Aphid Tuberolachnus salignus (Gmelin); Honeydew Production". Journal of Animal Ecology. 43 (1): 19–29. Bibcode:1974JAnEc..43...19L. doi:10.2307/3155. JSTOR   3155.
  14. ↑ Özder, N.; Sağlam, ö.; Güven, A.; Aydın, V. (August 2007). "Effect of temperature on development, mortality, fecundity and reproduction ofTuberolachnus salignus on weeping willow (Salix babylonica) and corkscrew willow (Salix matsudana)". Phytoparasitica. 35 (4): 386–391. Bibcode:2007Phyto..35..386O. doi:10.1007/BF02980702.
  15. ↑ Ozder, Nihal; Saglam, Ozgur (May 2008). "Effect of temperature on the biology of Tuberolachnus salignus (Gmelin) (sternorrhyncha: Aphididae) on (Salix alba)". Journal of Central European Agriculture. 9 (1): 155–160. hdl:20.500.11776/9601. Gale   A187963575.
  16. ↑ "Tuberolachnus salignus Giant willow aphid". Influential Points. 2023-02-12. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  17. ↑ Hussain, Barkat; War, Abdul Rasheed; Singh, Satnam; Ahmad, Shanawaz (25 May 2021). "First Record of an Invasive Pest, Giant Willow Aphid, Tuberolachnus salignus (Gmelin) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on Salix alba in the Cold Arid Region of Ladakh, India". Entomological News. 129 (5). doi:10.3157/021.129.0508.
  18. 1 2 3 Horton, Helena (2023-02-12). "Have you seen this bug? Scientists call on Britain's gardeners to track elusive aphid". The Guardian . Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  19. ↑ "Spread of GWA biocontrol agent, Pauesia nigrovaria". iNaturalist NZ. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  20. 1 2 3 4 Tun, Kyaw Min; Clavijo McCormick, Andrea; Jones, Trevor; Minor, Maria (June 2020). "The potential of harlequin ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis as a predator of the giant willow aphid Tuberolachnus salignus: voracity, life history and prey preference". BioControl. 65 (3): 313–321. Bibcode:2020BioCo..65..313T. doi:10.1007/s10526-020-10010-5.

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