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![]() Turkey | ![]() United Kingdom |
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Diplomatic mission | |
Embassy of Turkey, London | Embassy of United Kingdom, Ankara |
The relations between Turkey and the United Kingdom have a long history. The countries have been at war several times, such as within the First World War. They have also been allied several times, such as in the Crimean War. Both countries currently maintain relations via the British Embassy in Ankara [1] and the Turkish Embassy in London. [2]
Turkey and the United Kingdom maintain very good bilateral relations. [3] The President of Turkey Cevdet Sunay paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in November 1967. [4] The President of Turkey Kenan Evren paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1988. [4] Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Turkey in October 1971 and May 2008. [5] Britain and Turkey are both members of the G20, Council of Europe, and NATO. The United Kingdom signed a free trade agreement with Turkey on 29 December 2020. [6]
Turks view the UK in a very negative light. [7] A German Marshall Fund Poll showed that 13% of Turks view the UK positively while 72% view it negatively. A 2024 poll showed that 33% of the British view Turkey favorably while 47% view it negatively. [8]
In 1600, an Anglo-Moroccan alliance was formed between England and the Ottoman vassal states of the Barbary Coast. The British defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia before 1914, most famously in the Crimean War of the 1850s. [9]
Before 1914, Britain was the main defender of the Ottoman Empire, especially against Russian threats. The relationship between Turkey and Britain shifted dramatically as Germany made a better bargain and in 1914 the Porte (Ottoman government) joined in World War I against Britain. The change was apparent when two recently purchased ships of its navy, still manned by their German crews and commanded by their German admiral, carried out the Black Sea Raid, a surprise attack against Russian ports, on 29 October 1914. Russia replied by declaring war on 1 November 1914 and Russia's allies, Britain and France, then declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November 1914. The reasons for the Ottoman action were not immediately clear. [10]
The Ottoman Empire, of which Palestine was a part, broke up shortly after the First World War and was officially dissolved in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne. In the early years of the First World War, there were several important Ottoman victories against the British Empire, such as the Gallipoli Campaign and the Siege of Kut. Palestine was previously a part of the Ottoman Empire. Britain had declared its intention to support the creation of a Jewish homeland in the Balfour Declaration, 1917. The British had, in the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, previously been in discussions with the Hashemite family concerning the concept of an independent Arab state. These discussions remained inconclusive and vague but contained the implied support from Britain of an independent Arab state in exchange for a successful Arab Revolt during the First World War. The British, under General Allenby during the Arab Revolt under the guidance of British intelligence officers, the most famous being T. E. Lawrence, contributed to the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1917 in which British and French forces occupied the Sinai and the majority of Greater Syria. The land was administered by the British for the remainder of the war.
This war was won by the Allies, including the United Kingdom. The Allied forces, led by the United Kingdom, occupied the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul.
After the First World War, the Ottoman government led by Damat Ferid Pasha, who said that he "pinned his hopes first on God and then on the British government", wanted to establish close relations with Britain. [11] However, the occupation of Istanbul and of İzmir led to the establishment of a Turkish national movement, which opposed to British policy on Turkey and won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–23) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The handling of the Chanak Crisis (September–October 1922) between the United Kingdom and the Ankara-based Kemalist government caused the collapse of David Lloyd George's Ministry on 19 October 1922 [12] and political autonomy of Canada from the UK. [13] On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul.
In the 1930s, Turco-British relations became friendly, and have lasted so ever since. Potential tensions such as the status of Mosul province and militarisation and access to the Dardanelles and Bosporus, were resolved. [14] Turkey opposed the Italian attack on Abyssinia in the League of Nations and the totalitarian states of Europe were in the process of switching from revisionist diplomacy to warlike action. Fears were heightened by German and Italian armaments ambitions. [15]
In 1936, Turkey was able to achieve a revision of the post-war order in the Montreux Convention with the agreement of the United Kingdom. When ships were attacked by unknown (probably Italian) submarines in the Mediterranean Sea and in the passage to the Black Sea during the Spanish Civil War, France, the United Kingdom and Turkey began co-ordinated patrols. Turkey's relationship with the former wartime enemy improved increasingly. [16] In 1938, Turkey and the United Kingdom concluded a credit and armaments treaty, and after the German destruction of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, France and the United Kingdom abandoned their policy of appeasement and endeavoured to form a far-reaching alliance in southeastern Europe as part of a policy of containment. [17] In May 1939, the United Kingdom issued a declaration of support for Turkey and after the outbreak of the Second World War, Turkey, the United Kingdom and France signed the Tripartite Treaty of Ankara on 19 October 1939, promising each other mutual support. [18] As the allies in the Phoney War did not provide timely material, financial and industrial support to strengthen Turkey, it remained formally allied but not at war. [19]
The Ottoman Empire leased the island of Cyprus to the United Kingdom in 1878. The UK formally annexed Cyprus as a British colony in 1914 at the outset of the Great War. Britain maintained two sovereign military base areas on the island of Cyprus after the country's independence in 1960. In a response to a coup d'état orchestrated by the military junta of Greece to unite the island with mainland Greece, Turkey invaded the island in June 1974. As a result, more than a quarter of the population of Cyprus were expelled from the occupied northern part of the island, where Greek Cypriots constituted 80% of the population. A little over a year later in 1975, there was also a flow of roughly 60,000 Turkish Cypriots from the south to the north after the conflict. [20] The Turkish invasion ended in the partition of Cyprus along the UN-monitored Green Line which still divides Cyprus. In 1983 the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared independence, although Turkey is the only country which recognises it. [21] The UK is a signatory to the Treaty of Guarantee, together with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence and status of Cyprus. [22]
On 4 November 2009, David Miliband, the Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom, during a visit to Turkey underlined the UK government's support for Turkey's bid to join the European Union, saying: "I am very clear that Turkish accession to the EU is important and will be of huge benefit to both Turkey and the EU." [23] In 2010, the BBC reported Prime Minister David Cameron's 'anger' at slow pace of Turkish EU negotiations. [24] The United Kingdom was the strongest supporter for the Accession of Turkey to the European Union. Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Boris Johnson has historically been a passionate supporter of Turkey's EU aspirations. [25] The UK, while a member of the EU, and Turkey were linked by a Customs Union agreement, which came in force on 31 December 1995 until Brexit. [26] In May 2016, then-British Prime Minister David Cameron said that "it is not remotely on the cards that Turkey is going to join the EU any time soon. They applied in 1987. At the current rate of progress they will probably get round to joining in about the year 3000 according to the latest forecasts." [27]
In August 2023, the United Kingdom has signed a deal with Turkey to enhance cooperation in tackling irregular migration. [28]
As the fifth and seventeenth largest global economies (by GDP) respectively, the United Kingdom and Turkey are also the second and seventh largest European economies. [29] The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8% of its total goods to the United Kingdom. [30] Annually, around 2.5 million Britons take holidays in Turkey, [31] while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure.
Turkey and the UK signed a goods only free trade agreement on 29 December 2020 following the end of Brexit transition period, as the UK became no longer a part of European Union–Turkey Customs Union. [32] [33] On 18 July 2023, Britain and Turkey announced their intentions to negotiate a new free trade agreement to replace the FTA signed in 2020 which replicated the EU-Turkey trade agreement, this updated agreement will also cover key areas of the UK economy like data, digital, and services. [34] [35]
During Theresa May's visit to Turkey in January 2017, BAE and TAI officials signed an agreement, worth about £100 million, for BAE to provide assistance in developing the TAI TFX aircraft. [36] February 2021, it has been confirmed to members of the press corps, that high level talks have taken place on the possibility of selling Turkey an aircraft carrier of the UK flat top style. If it would be second hand, or built in Turkey with UK workers and experts, has not been confirmed. The state of Turkey and the United States has not been mentioned; in relation to the "F 35 Lightning" program; their build slot having been vacated as a result of relevant purchase of Russian anti-aircraft missile systems.
Physically bridging Europe and Asia and being above Africa, Turkey is a secular country that has historically pursued a Western-oriented foreign policy. To this end, Turkey uses its global diplomatic network—the third most extensive—of 252 diplomatic and consular missions.
Relations between Greece and Turkey began in the 1830s following Greece's formation after its declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. Modern relations began when Turkey declared its formation in 1923 following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.
British Turks or Turks in the United Kingdom are Turkish people who have immigrated to the United Kingdom. However, the term may also refer to British-born persons who have Turkish parents or who have a Turkish ancestral background.
The Franco–Turkish War, known as the Cilicia Campaign in France and as the Southern Front of the Turkish War of Independence in Turkey, was a series of conflicts fought between France and the Turkish National Forces from December 1918 to October 1921 in the aftermath of World War I. French interest in the region stemmed from the Sykes-Picot Agreement and was further fueled by the refugee crisis following the Armenian genocide.
The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire were characterized by competition with the Persian Empire to the east, Russia to the north, and Austria to the west. The control over European minorities began to collapse after 1800, with Greece being the first to break free, followed by Serbia. Egypt was lost in 1798–1805. In the early 20th century Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence soon followed. The Ottomans lost nearly all their European territory in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). The Ottoman Empire allied itself with the Central Powers in the First World War, and lost. The British successfully mobilized Arab nationalism. The Ottoman Empire thereby lost its Arab possessions, and itself soon collapsed in the early 1920s. For the period after 1923 see Foreign relations of Turkey.
British–Portuguese relations are foreign relations between Portugal and the United Kingdom. The relationship, largely driven by the nations' common interests as maritime countries on the edge of Europe and close to larger continental neighbours, dates back to the Middle Ages in 1373 with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. The two countries now enjoy a friendly and close relationship. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO.
Greek–British relations are foreign relations between Greece and the United Kingdom. Greece and the United Kingdom maintain excellent and cordial relations and consider each other an ally with the Greek Prime Minister, Kyriakos Mitsotakis, paying an official visit to London in 2021. Greece and the United Kingdom are both members of the United Nations, NATO and the Council of Europe.
Northern Cyprus is recognised only by Turkey, a country which facilitates many of its contacts with the international community. After it was occupied by Turkey, Northern Cyprus' relations with the rest of the world were further complicated by a series of United Nations resolutions which declared its independence legally invalid. A 2004 UN Referendum on settling the Cyprus dispute was accepted by the Turkish Cypriots but rejected by the Greek Cypriots. After that, the European Union declared its intentions to assist in reducing the economic isolation of Northern Cyprus and began giving aid to the territory. However, due to pressure from Greece and the Republic of Cyprus, this aid coming from EU funds cannot be used on Greek Cypriot land and property nor on public bodies. As a result, these funds can be used only on 29 percent of people on the island of Cyprus.
German–Turkish relations have their beginnings in the times of the Ottoman Empire and they have culminated in the development of strong bonds with many facets that include economic, military, cultural and social relations. With Turkey as a candidate for the European Union, of which Germany is the largest member, and the existence of a significant Turkish diaspora in Germany, these relations have become more and more intertwined over the decades. Relations with Turkey significantly deteriorated after the 2016–17 Turkish purges including the arrest of journalists such as Die Welt's Deniz Yücel. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe and NATO. Germany opposes Turkey's European Union membership.
Cypriot–British relations are foreign relations between Cyprus and the United Kingdom. Cyprus gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, after 82 years of British control. The two countries now enjoy warm relations; however, the continuing British sovereignty of the Akrotiri and Dhekelia Sovereign Base Areas has continued to divide Cypriots. The two countries share membership of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Russia–Turkey relations are the bilateral relations between Russia and Turkey and their antecedent states. Relations between the two are rather cyclical. From the late 16th until the early 20th centuries, relations between the Ottoman and Russian empires were normally adverse and hostile and the two powers were engaged in numerous Russo-Turkish wars, including one of the longest wars in modern history. Russia attempted to extend its influence in the Balkans and gain control of the Bosphorus at the expense of the weakening Ottoman Empire. As a result, the diplomatic history between the two powers was extremely bitter and acrimonious up to World War I. However, in the early 1920s, as a result of the Bolshevik Russian government's assistance to Turkish revolutionaries during the Turkish War of Independence, the governments' relations warmed. Relations again turned sour at the end of WWII as the Soviet government laid territorial claims and demanded other concessions from Turkey. Turkey joined NATO in 1952 and placed itself within the Western alliance against the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War, when relations between the two countries were at their lowest level. Relations began to improve the following year, when the Soviet Union renounced its territorial claims after the death of Stalin.
Bulgarian–British relations are foreign relations between Bulgaria and the United Kingdom. Both countries established diplomatic relations in July 1879 as Bulgaria achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire. The two nations were enemies during the First World War, most of the Second World War, and the Cold War. Bulgaria has an embassy in London, and the United Kingdom have an embassy in Sofia. Both countries are full members of NATO and Council of Europe. the United Kingdom gave full support to Bulgaria's applications for membership in the European Union and NATO.
Foreign relations exist between Armenia and the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom recognised Armenia on 31 December 1991. The first Embassy of Armenia in Europe was established in London in October 1992; in 1995 the United Kingdom established an embassy in Yerevan. The two countries maintain collaborative and friendly relations. Both countries are members of the Council of Europe.
Denmark–Turkey relations are the current and historical relations between Denmark and Turkey. Denmark has an embassy in Ankara, and Turkey has an embassy in Copenhagen. Both countries are members of NATO and Council of Europe. Diplomatic relations between Denmark and Turkey were put under pressure in 2014 because of the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy and the Roj TV affair (Roj TV's broadcasting license was suspended by the Supreme Court in Denmark on February 27, 2014). Denmark is a member of the European Union, Turkey is not a member.
Polish–Turkish relations are the foreign relations between Poland and Turkey. Both countries are full members of NATO, OECD, OSCE, the Union for the Mediterranean, the Council of Europe and the World Trade Organisation. Poland is a member of the European Union, Turkey is not a member.
Serbian–Turkish relations are foreign relations between Serbia and Turkey. Serbia has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate-general in Istanbul. Turkey has an embassy in Belgrade. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). Turkey is a member of NATO. Serbia instead is not a member of NATO.
Brazil–Turkey relations are foreign relations between Brazil and Turkey.
Foreign relations exist between Austria and the United Kingdom, and have been positive and friendly since Austrian independence in 1955. Both nations are members of the Council of Europe. The two nations share close economic and technological ties, and cooperate in a variety of fields, particularly when the UK was a member of the European Union and also more recently in condemning Russia's invasion of Ukraine. They have also agreed to cooperate on mutual interests over matters involving security in the Balkans, including regarding Kosovo, Albania and Serbia and furthermore to work together on countering subversive Russian activity in the region.
The Turks in Europe refers to Turkic peoples living in Europe, particularly those of Turkish origin.
Egypt–United Kingdom relations are the diplomatic, economic, and cultural relationships between Egypt and the United Kingdom. Relations are longstanding. They involve politics, defence, trade and education, and especially issues regarding the Suez Canal.