Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire and its vassals in its peak during the late 16th century during the regime of Murad 3

The Ottoman Empire had a number of tributary and vassal states throughout its history. Its tributary states would regularly send tribute to the Ottoman Empire, which was understood by both states as also being a token of submission. In exchange for certain privileges, its vassal states were obligated to render support to the Ottoman Empire when called upon to do so. Some of its vassal states were also tributary states. These client states, many of which could be described by modern terms such as satellite states or puppet states, were usually on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire under suzerainty of the Sublime Porte, over which direct control was not established. The Ottoman Empire maintained relationships with various states, some of which were under their direct rule (provinces) and others that were vassal states or tributary states, meaning they recognized Ottoman suzerainty but retained a degree of autonomy.

Functions

The tributary system of the Ottoman Empire was dictated by a series of small states that paid tribute in one way or another to the Ottoman Empire. Initially, the system started after the 14th century, when Balkan states (Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, Wallachia) accepted vassal status after defeats. Ottomans first demanded only a small yearly tribute from vassal princes, as a token of their submission. They later demanded that a vassal prince's son should be held as hostage, that the prince should come to the Palace once a year and swear allegiance, and that he should send auxiliary troops on the sultan's campaigns. Vassal princes were required to treat the sultan's friends and enemies as their own. If the vassal failed in these duties, his lands would be declared as darülharb (lit. territory of war) open to the raids of the Ghazis. ^[1]

The Ottomans considered as their vassals all states whose rulers agreed to pay tribute. Even the Habsburgs fell into this cateogry after Ferdinand I (1526-64) agreed to buy peace from the Ottomans in 1533. In fact the Habsburgs were vassals in name only, as was Ragusa. Transylvania depended much more on the good will of the Ottomans than did those ruling in either Vienna or Ragusa, and the so-called Danubian Principalities, Moldavia and Wallachia, were indeed vassal states in the strictest legal sense of the term. ^{[2] [3]}

Most of Ottomans conquests were normally Transform into vassal states ^[4] , such examples as Fezzan, Transylvania, tripoli, Hungary, and many more. The Ottomans established a pattern of government within the territories or principalities that were incorporated gradually through tribute and military alliance before full annexation. ^[5] The Ottomans preferred indirect rule in the Balkans and the Arab provinces rather then being a vassal, the Ottomans would give Local dynasts that were retained as vassals, particularly in border zones, ^[6] this policy allowed local ruler to have local authority exchange for tribute such as military support and coinage, public rituals such as naming the sultan in khutba, ^[7] while recognize the ottomans as Head ruler, and serve as buffer zones.

Forms

• Some states within the eyalet system included sancakbeys who were local to their sanjak or who inherited their position (e.g., Samtskhe, some Kurdish sanjaks), areas that were permitted to elect their own leaders (e.g., areas of Albania, Epirus, and Morea (Mani Peninsula) was nominally a part of Aegean Islands Province but Maniot beys were tributary vassals of the Porte, or de facto independent eyalets ^[8] (e.g., the Barbaresque 'regencies' Algiers, ^[9] Tunisia, Tripolitania in the Maghreb, and later the Khedivate of Egypt). Egypt specifically had a unique case, Muhammad Ali Pasha became its Ottoman Governor but transformed himself to be its de facto ruler. He went to war with the Ottoman Sultan twice and established a dynasty that would rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952, even after the ottoman sovereignty ended in 1914.
• Outside the eyalet system were states such as Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania which paid tribute to the Ottomans and over which the Porte had the right to nominate or depose the ruler, garrison rights, and foreign policy control. They were considered by the Ottomans as part of Dar al-'Ahd, thus they were allowed to preserve their self-rule, and were not under Islamic law, like the empire proper; Ottoman subjects, or Muslims for that matter, were not allowed to settle the land permanently or to build mosques. ^[10]
• Some states such as Ragusa paid tribute for the entirety of their territory and recognized Ottoman suzerainty.
• Others, such as the Sharif of Mecca, recognized Ottoman suzerainty but were subsidized by the Porte. The Ottomans were also expected to protect the Sharifate militarily – as suzerains over Mecca and Medina, the Ottoman sultans were meant to ensure the protection of the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages and safe passage of pilgrims. The Amir al-hajj was a military officer appointed by the Sultanate to ensure this.
• During the nineteenth century, as Ottoman territory receded, several breakaway states from the Ottoman Empire had the status of vassal states (e.g. they paid tribute to the Ottoman Empire), before gaining complete independence. They were however de facto independent, including having their own foreign policy and their own independent military. This was the case with the principalities of Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria.
• Some states paid tribute for possessions that were legally bound to the Ottoman Empire but not possessed by the Ottomans such as the Habsburgs for parts of Royal Hungary or Venice for Zante.

There were also secondary vassals such as the Nogai Horde and the Circassians who were (at least nominally) vassals of the khans of Crimea, or some Berbers and Arabs who paid tribute to the North African beylerbeyis, who were in turn Ottoman vassals themselves. Other tribute from foreign powers included a kind of “protection money” sometimes called a horde tax (similar to the Danegeld) paid by Russian envoys to the Crimean/Ottoman turks, and for the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, It was usually Crimean khanate rather than to the Ottoman sultan. This tribute was called upomynky ^[11] (Part of the Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe)

List of Ottoman tributary and Vassals

1683

• Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, (PLC) 1576-de jure 1586 de facto 1587: briefly considered a vassal/tributary state under the Ottoman vassaince of Transylvania ^{[12] [13]}  ?
• Byzantine Empire 1371–20 February 1403, 1424–6 April 1453 ^[14]
  • Despotate of the Morea (1422–1470)
  • Empire of Trebizond (1456–1461)
• Lordship of Prilep (1371–1395)
• Dejanović noble family (1371–1395)
• Principality of Wallachia (Eflâk Prensliği), 1396–1397, 1417–1861 with some interruptions. ^[15]
• Principality of Moravian Serbia (1389-1402)
• Despotate of Serbia (1402-1459)
• Second Bulgarian Empire (14th century)
• Principality of Moldavia (Boğdan Prensliği), 1456–1457, 1503–1861 with some interruptions. ^[16]
• Republic of Ragusa (1458–1808)
• Republic of Venice (1475–1603) ^{[17] [18]}
• Holy Roman Empire (HRE) (1533–1540?-1606), tributary state ^{[19] [20] [21]}
  • Archduchy of Austria (1547-1604 + 1664) ^{[22] [23]}
  • Kingdom of Bohemia, briefly in 1620 under Frederick I of Bohemia ^[24]
• Crimean Khanate (Kırım Hanlığı), 1478–1774
  • Grand Principality of Moscow 1521: during the Crimean invasion of Russia ^{[25] [26] [27]}
  • Kazan Khanate (Kazan Hanlığı), 1523: Kazan briefly conquered by Crimean Khanate, Sahib I Giray enthroned as Khan ^[28]
  • Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth   Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (16th century till the great turkish war Paid a Horde tax to the Crimean khans ^[29]
  • Budjak Horde (? –1807)
  • Circassian principalities and tribes ^[30]
  • Kabarda (? –1739)
  • Yedisan (1684–1760s)
  • Jamboyluq Horde (also known as Perekop Horde) ^[31]
  • Yedishkul Horde ^[32]
  • Lesser Nogai Horde
  • Tsardom of Russia (1547- 1783) (century paid tribute to avoid raids on their territory)The Crimean khanate did a lot of nasty raids and Russia did pay them tribute occasionally. Technically (but not de facto) Russia was a tributary of Crimean khanate as remaining successor of the Golden Horde, which were hard to defeat until about 17th century ^{[33] [34]}
• Funjistan Some sources suggest that Amara may have agreed to nominal tributary status or diplomatic recognition in exchange for autonomy. This allowed Sennar to remain effectively independent while giving the Ottomans a sense of regional control. (1517-1533/4)

• Emirate of Mount Lebanon (1516–1842) ^{[35] [36]}
  • Ma'n dynasty (1516–1697)
  • Chehab dynasty (1697–1842)
  • Druze Emirates
• Sharifate of Mecca (1517–1803)
• Arabian tribes under Ottoman rule.
  • Al Fadl, Mawali, Hassana, Ruwalla, Ageidet, Fedaan, and Sbaa (1516-18th century ^[37]
  • Hutaym (1553?-19th century)
  • Dulaim (?-19th century)
  • Mozabite tribe or Banu Mzab (1500s-18th)
  • Turabay dynasty (1517-1677)
• Regency of Algiers (1516–1830)
  • Kingdom of Tlemcen (1551-1556 or 1840?) ^[38]
  • Sultanate of Tuggurt or tuoggourt (1552–1830)
  • Makhzen tribes
  • Dhouaouda? (1541-1638) Dhouaouda signed the Pact of Barbarossa with the Ottomans and the emir of Biskra, Ali bin Sakhri pledged allegiance to the Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman Tripolitania
  • Tuareg Confederations (Semi-Vassal Relations) Tuareg tribes in the central Sahara (e.g., Kel Ajjer, Kel Ahaggar) paid tribute or acknowledged Ottoman Tripoli's authority intermittently. According to Ahmad Al-Sharif, The Sahara: A Political and Economic History (1979) and J. Despois, Les Touaregs du Hoggar (1957) (18th–19th centuries)
  • Sanjak of Benghazi (Bingazi Sancağı): autonomous sanjak. Formerly in the vilayet of Tripoli, but after 1875 dependent directly on the ministry of the interior at Constantinople ^[39]
• Ottoman Tunisia (1574–1881)
  • Djerid (1570s–1881) ^[40]
• Awlad Muhammad (Fezzan) (1574-1812)
  • Riyyah tribe and Magarha ^[41]
• Sennusia? (De facto vassal) ^{[ citation needed ]}
• Karamanids
• Pashalik of Yanina (1787-1822)
• Pashalik of Berat (1774-1809)
• Pashalik of Scutari (1757–1831)
• League of Prizren (1878-1881)
• Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526–1551, 1556–1570) ^[42]
• Mani Peninsula (1460 - Until 1878?)
• Beylik of Ramazan (1517-1608)
• Souliotes Confederacy (16th-1821)
• Principality of Zirqan (1512-1835)
• Principality of Suleyman (1514-1839)
• Tripolitania Karamanlis (1711-1835)
• Adal Sultanate ^{[43] [44]}
• Eastern Africa/ Kilwa Swahilli (Mogadishu down to Mombas) (late 1580 to early 1600) ^{[45] [46]}
  • Comoros Islands(briefly 1586-1590 part of the Swahili tribes)^{[ citation needed ]}
  • Kilifi, Pate, Lamu and Faza recognize ottoman suzerainty ^{[47] [48]}
  • Malindi, briefly seized the city (1595-1598) ^[49]
  • 1585-1590 Barawa becomes Ottoman vassal ^[50]
• Duchy of the Archipelago (1537, ^[51] 1565 ^[51] –1579)
• Wattasid Dynasty (1554)
  • Saddi Sultanate (1580-1592 paid tribute after battle of faz) ^[52]
• Samtskhe-Saatabago (atabegate) (1500–1625)
• Kingdom of Imereti (1555–1804)
  • Principality of Mingrelia (1557–1803)
  • Principality of Mingrelia (1568-1803)
  • Principality of Guria (1614–1810) ^[53]
  • Principality of Abkhazia (1555–1810)
• Kingdom of Kartli (1578–1612, 1723–1736)
• Kingdom of Kakheti (1578–1612, 1723–1736)
• Bornu Empire (1580-1603) [citation needed]
• Hilaalee dynasty of The Maldives, 1565?–1737? ^[54] in historical sources, such as Ali Macar Reis’ atlas from 1567, Katib Çelebi’s 17th Century magnum opus ‘Cihannüma’, cartographic depictions by Mahmud Raif Effendi (1803), accounts documenting the sporadic anchoring of Ottoman vessels in Maldivian ports, a well-documented tradition tracing back to the 16th century, the fact that during the latter part of the 16th century, the Maldives functioned as a vassal state under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. ^[55]
• Principality of Transylvania (Erdel), 1570–1699 with some interruptions
• Sultanate of Aceh, 1569–1903 ^{[56] [57] [58]}
• Saadi dynasty (1576-1592) ^[59]
• Emirate of Harar (1782-?–1875?)(1875-1887) (maybe even earlier than that?) was a subject state of the Khedivate of Egypt/Ottoman Empire ^{[60] [61] [62]}
• Five independent Assyrian tribes of Hakkâri (Tyari, Baz, Jilu, Tkhuma and Diz) ^{[63] [64]}
• Kurdish emirates (16th to 19th centuries) peacefully vassalized after the Ottoman-Iraqi War, when Kurds were allowed their own state. Most Kurdish Emirates was in bad condition an agreed to become an Ottoman tributary. ^[65]
• Principality of Montenegro (Karadağ Prensliği), (1696–1878)
• Cossack Hetmanate: Protectorate and Sanjak of the Ottoman Empire (1655–1663) ^{[66] [67]} and (June 1669 – 1685) ^{[68] [69]} The Ottomans continued to recognize some use for the Cossack vassal state and appointed lurii as Hatmanate. ^[70]
• Principality of Upper Hungary (modern-day Slovakia), 1682–1685 under Imre Thököly ^[71]
  • Danubian Sich ^{[ citation needed ]}
• Mamluk of Iraq (1704–1831)
• Sultanate of Darfur ^[72] (1915)
• Derebeys Feudal Lords (18th to 19th century)
• Septinsular Republic (1800–1807)
• Principality of Serbia (Sırbistan Prensliği), 1815–1878; de facto independence 1867; de jure independence 1878 [tsardom of russia]
• Emirate of Jabal Shammar, 1836–1921 ^{[73] [74]}
• Emirate of Najd ^{[75] [76] [77] [78]} 1836–1918
• Al-Muntafiq (1530–1918)
• United Principalities of Romania (Romanya Prensliği), 1862–1877
• Yettishar (1865-1877)
• Khedivate of Egypt (Mısır), 1867–1914: de jure under Ottoman suzerainty, in effect fully autonomous, and from 1882 under British occupation; broke away from Ottoman suzerainty upon Ottoman entry into World War I on the side of the Central Powers and reformed as the "Sultanate of Egypt" which was declared a British protectorate on 5 November 1914, the day when Britain and France declared war against the Ottoman Empire. Britain also formally annexed Cyprus (under British administration since the Cyprus Convention in 1878, but nominally still an Ottoman territory) until 5 November 1914.
  • Ja'alin tribe (1820-1822)
• Principality of Bulgaria (Bulgaristan Prensliği), 1878–1908: de facto independent.
• Principality of Samos (Sisam), 1835–1912: established as an autonomous tributary principality under a Christian Prince; annexed to Greece during the First Balkan War
• Eastern Rumelia (Doğu Rumeli), 1878–1885: established by the Treaty of Berlin on 13 July 1878 as an autonomous province; in a personal union with the tributary Principality of Bulgaria on 6 September 1885 but remained de jure under Ottoman suzerainty; annexed by Bulgaria on 5 October 1908.
• Cyprus (Kıbrıs), 1878–1914: established British administration under Ottoman suzerainty with the Cyprus Convention of 4 June 1878; annexed by Britain on 5 November 1914, upon Ottoman entry into World War I.
• Qatar (Katar), 1872–1913
• Cretan State (Girit), 1898–1912/13: established as an internationally supervised tributary state headed by a Christian governor; in 1908 the Cretan parliament unilaterally declared union with Greece; the island was occupied by Greece in 1912, and de jure annexed in 1913

See also

• Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire

References

1. Halil İnalcık (1973). The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300-1600. p. 12.
2. referenceworks.brill.com https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI1O/SIM-4869.xml . Retrieved 30 July 2025.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
3. Sugar, Peter F. (1977). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. University of Washington Press. ISBN   978-0-295-95443-1. JSTOR   j.ctvcwn3dw.
4. https://psi301.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Ottoman_Empire_and_the_World_Around_It.pdf?utm.{{cite web}}: External link in |last= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
5. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYQd5G-1EC&pg=PA53
6. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYQd5G-1EC&pg=PA601
7. https://books.google.com/books?id=GaGBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91.{{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help); External link in |last= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
8. Therborn, G÷ran (12 October 2021). Cities of Power: The Urban, The National, The Popular, The Global. Verso Books. p. 128. ISBN   978-1-78478-545-1.
9. Naylor, Phillip C. (15 January 2015). North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present. University of Texas Press. p. 153. ISBN   978-0-292-76190-2.
10. Romanian historian Florin Constantiniu points out that, on crossing into Wallachia, foreign travelers used to notice hearing church bells in every village, which were forbidden by Islamic law in the Ottoman empire. Constantiniu, Florin (2006). O istorie sinceră a poporului român[A sincere history of the Romanian people] (IV ed.). Univers Enciclopedic Gold. pp. 115–118.
11. Fedchuk, Oleksandr (2023). "Political Crysis in the Crimean Khanate from 1665 to 1692". The Journal of Ukrainian History (47): 7–19. doi:10.17721/2522-4611.2023.47.1. ISSN   2522-4611.
12. Brill, E. J. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. Morocco - Ruzzīk. BRILL. ISBN   978-90-04-09792-6.
13. referenceworks.brill.com https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI1O/SIM-4869.xml . Retrieved 25 July 2025.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
14. TheOttomanEmpireAComprehensiveHistory.pdf
15. Kingston, A. J. (2023). Ottoman Empire: The Sultan's Domain. A.J. Kingston. ISBN   978-1-83938-338-0.
16. Kingston, A. J. (2023). Ottoman Empire: The Sultan's Domain. A.J. Kingston. ISBN   978-1-83938-338-0.
17. Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1976). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571. American Philosophical Society. ISBN   978-0-87169-127-9.
18. Oral, Özgür (2022). ""A Humiliating Treaty Followed the Great Victory": The Ahdname of 1573 Issued by Selim II". Turkish Journal of History. 0 (76): 145–160. doi:10.26650/iutd.202208.
19. Sugar, Peter F. (31 December 2012). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. University of Washington Press. doi:10.1515/9780295803630. ISBN   978-0-295-80363-0.
20. Sugar, Peter F. (1 July 2012). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804. University of Washington Press. ISBN   978-0-295-80363-0.
21. TheOttomanEmpireAComprehensiveHistory.pdf
22. "Key developments of 1568". justworldnews.org. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
23. "Hungary - Partition, Habsburgs, Revolution". www.britannica.com. 28 July 2025. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
24. Peter H. Wilson (2009). The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy. Harvard University Press. p. 294. ISBN   978-0-674-03634-5.
25. Histoire moderne depuis le grand schisme d'occident (1378) jusqu'à 1789, Volume 1. Emile Lefranc.
26. Histoire Des Gouvernemens Du Nord, Ou De l'Origine & des Progres du Gouvernement des Provinces-Unies, du Danemark, de la Suede ... Ouvrage traduit de l'Anglois de M. Williams. Volume 3.
27. Atlas Historique Des États Européens, Et De Tous Les Pays En Rapport Avec L'Europe: Composé D'Une Suite De Cartes Géographiques Et De Tableaux Chronologiques Et Généalogiques. Christian Kruse, Friedrich Kruse.
28. "The Tatar Khanate of Crimea". All Empires. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
29. Başer, Alper (14 August 2023). "Relationship between the Crimean Khanate and the Polish-Lithuanian State during the Reign of Devlet I Giray and Mehmed II Giray in Mühimme Defters". Acta Poloniae Historica. 127: 131–165. doi:10.12775/APH.2022.127.08. ISSN   2450-8462.
30. Dzybova, Saida G.; Shaov, Ibragim K. (December 2020). "The Issue of Ottoman Suzerainty over Cirkassia: The Character of the Vassal Relationship".
31. В. В. Панашенко. Джамбуйлуцька орда Archived 2016-06-17 at the Wayback Machine
32. "Едичукульская орда". Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary: In 86 Volumes (82 Volumes and 4 Additional Volumes) (in Russian). St. Petersburg: F. A. Brockhaus. 1890–1907.
33. Lemberg, Radio. "A History of Ukraine. Episode 33. The Crimean Khanate and Its Permanent Invasions of Ukraine". radiolemberg.com (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 29 July 2025.
34. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=782112#:~:text=If%20the%20tsars%20fail%20in%20paying%2C%20it,of%20power%20between%20Muscovy%20and%20the%20Khanate.
35. "Download PDF | the View from Istanbul, Ottoman Lebanon and the Druze Emirate in the Ottoman Chancery Documents 1546-1711, I.B. Tauris Publishers (2004)". 15 January 2024.
36. Lebanon – Page 2". The Royal Herald. 26 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2025
37. https://juniperpublishers.com/gjaa/GJAA.MS.ID.555656.php?utm_
38. "A Brief History of the Kingdom of Tlemcen". Algeria.com. Retrieved 7 August 2025.
39. "Chisholm, Hugh, (22 Feb. 1866–29 Sept. 1924), Editor of the Encyclopædia Britannica (10th, 11th and 12th editions)", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u194658 , retrieved 30 August 2025
40. Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-20981-6.
41. Aḥmīda, ʿAlī ʿAbd-al-Laṭīf (2009). The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance, Second Edition. SUNY Series in the Social and Economic History of the Middle East Ser. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN   978-1-4384-2893-2.
42. "Hungarian Civil Wars". www.ebsco.com. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
43. The Ottoman Age of Exploration. Giancarlo Casale. Oxford University Press
44. Aregay, Merid W. "A Reappraisal of the Impact of Firearms in the History of Warfare in Ethiopia (c. 1500–1800)." Journal of Ethiopian Studies 14 (1980): 98–121.
45. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (10 April 2012). The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118496459. ISBN   978-0-470-67291-4.
46. Bernardini, Michele (2011). "Dejanirah Couto, Rui Manuel Loureiro. Revisiting Hormuz. Portuguese Interactions in the Persian Gulf Region in the Early Modern Period. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Harrassowitz Verlag (Wiesbaden), 2008, 280 p. (Maritime Asia 19)". Abstracta Iranica. 31. doi:10.4000/abstractairanica.39354. ISSN   0240-8910.
47. https://books.google.dk/books?id=CgawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA407&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
48. https://books.google.dk/books?id=cVGZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
49. https://kenyaholidays.altervista.org/history-of-malindi/
50. "History of Somalia SOURCES". Google Docs. Retrieved 12 August 2025.
51. Miller, William. The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566). London: 1908.
52. The Cambridge History of Africa by J. D. Fage p.406
53. https://www.theinfolist.com/html/ALL/s/P/Principality_Of_Guria.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com
54. Gábor Kármán; Lovro Kunčević (2013). The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. BRILL. p. 429. ISBN   978-90-04-25440-4.
55. "Maritime Crossroads: Unraveling the Maldives- Turkey Relations (1650-1900) görünümü". afrikacalismalari.com. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
56. Palabiyik, Hamit, Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age, (Ankara, 2008), 84.
57. Ismail Hakki Goksoy. Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2008. Retrieved 10 May 2018.
58. https://www.persee.fr/doc/arch_0044-8613_2014_num_87_1_4458#:~:text=Aceh's%20declared%20%E2%80%9C%20vassalage%E2%80%9D%20to%20the,our%20understanding%20of%20Indonesia's%20history.{{cite web}}: External link in |last= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
59. The Cambridge History of Africa by J. D. Fage p.408-
60. "Mahallak - Abd Al-Shakur Vassal of the Ottoman Empire 1782-1794 Emirate of Harar (Ethiopia) Copper Coin Value and Price Guide". coin-identifier.com. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
61. "Mahallak - Abu Bakr II Vassal of the Ottoman Empire 1834-1852 Emirate of Harar (Ethiopia) Copper Coin Value and Price Guide". coin-identifier.com. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
62. "Mahallak - Abu Bakr II, Harar". en.numista.com. Retrieved 26 June 2025.
63. Wilmshurst, David (2000). The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318-1913. Peeters Publishers. ISBN   978-90-429-0876-5.
64. Aboona, Hirmis (2008). Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: Intercommunal Relations on the Periphery of the Ottoman Empire. Amherst: Cambria Press. ISBN   978-1-60497-583-3.
65. www.let.uu.nl https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034154/http://www.let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/Evliya/Evliya%20in%20Diyarbekir_Ch_2_Ottoman.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2025.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
66. Riedlmayer, András, and Victor Ostapchuk. Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj and the Porte: A Document from the Ottoman Archives. Harvard Ukrainian Studies 8.3/4 (1984): 453–73. JSTOR. Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. Web.
67. Kármán, Gábor, and Lovro Kunčević, eds. The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Print. p.137
68. Kármán, Gábor, and Lovro Kunčević, eds. The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Print. p.142
69. Magocsi, Paul Robert. History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. 2nd ed. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2010. Print. p.369
70. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=80ILuG3KRGIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA148#v=onepage&q&f=true The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries Gábor Kármán, Lovro Kunčević BRILL, 20 Jun 2013]
71. "Princes of Transylvania". Tacitus.nu. 30 August 2008. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
72. Peacock, A.C.S. (2022). "An Embassy from the Sultan of Darfur to the Sublime Porte in 1791". Islamic Africa. 12: 55–91. doi:10.1163/21540993-01201005. hdl: 10023/25159 .
73. Page 45 British Relations with Ibn Saud of Najd, 1914-1919 Daniel Nolan Silverfarb University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1972
74. "Google Books". books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
75. Britain and the Persian Gulf: 1795-1880. John Barrett Kelly. Clarendon Press.
76. "Google Books". books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 17 July 2025.
77. "Contents", The Clerics of Islam, Yale University Press, pp. v–vi, 31 December 2017, doi:10.12987/9780300206616-toc, ISBN   978-0-300-20661-6 , retrieved 17 July 2025
78. Suber, Peter (9 February 2004). "Cornell launches OA university press for books". doi: 10.63485/fpjbt-hrf58 .{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)