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Banda agreed to hold the referendum in response to international pressure and growing domestic unrest. Opposition groups had initially doubted the legitimacy of the process, but eventually participated once they were allowed to register as “special interest groups” and after a series of discussions led to an agreed legal framework. Major opposition participants included the Catholic and Presbyterian Churches, the United Democratic Front (representing internal opponents and dissident government officials), and the Alliance for Democracy (linked to trade unions and opposition groups in exile).[1]
The referendum campaign faced controversy, including allegations of misuse of state resources by the Banda regime. The opposition claimed limited access to key media outlets, particularly radio, and had to rely on public rallies and clandestine efforts, which remained largely confined to urban areas. Mediated by the United Nations, discussions led to agreements between the government, the Alliance for Democracy (AFORD), and the United Democratic Front (UDF), allowing the referendum to proceed with opposition participation. Although divisions among opposition groups became apparent, AFORD and the UDF pledged to prevent internal disagreements from weakening their broader goal of expanding political pluralism.
The MCP mounted a considerable effort to maintain its status as the country's only legal party, claiming multiparty politics would lead to tribal and religious conflict. At a rally in Banda's hometown of Blantyre, a boys' choir sung "Ladies and gentlemen, don't listen to multi-party, because that is death, that is war." Several of Banda's advisers were aggrieved by having to call the referendum, believing it came from pressure from Western donors who were no longer willing to prop up Banda's regime in the aftermath of the end of communism. Despite this, some MCP insiders conceded there was a chance the referendum would pass.[2]
Over 64% of voters voted to end the MCP's 27-year monopoly on power, compared to 35.31% for maintaining a single-party system. Voter turnout reached 67.1% of the registered electorate, with higher participation in the center and north than in the south. International observers recognized the multiparty victory but noted incidents of intimidation against government critics, concluding that the referendum was not entirely free and fair. The results were regionally polarized, with the Malawi Congress Party retaining support in its central strongholds, while opposition forces secured large majorities in the far north and south, exceeding 80% in those areas.[3]
Banda recognized the referendum outcome but rejected calls to resign and allow a transitional government. A National Consultative Council was formed, which removed most of the dictatorial powers Banda had held since the institution of one-party rule in 1966. It also ended his position as president for life, though he remained head of state. The army dismantled the regime’s secret police in December, paving the way for general elections the following year.
General elections were held in 1994, in which Banda and the MCP were soundly defeated. Voter turnout for the referendum was 67% of the 4.7 million registered voters.[4]
Historical Context
Malawi gained independence in 1964 under the leadership of Hastings Kamuzu Banda and the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1966, the MCP was declared the only legal party, initiating a period often characterized as a “one-man state” led by a “highly repressive autocracy.” Under Banda’s rule, strict controls were imposed on social, political, and moral behavior. All adult Malawians were required to join the MCP and carry party identification, with severe penalties for dissent.
Banda’s regime maintained full diplomatic relations with apartheid South Africa—at the time the only African country to do so—and received support from the United States, which viewed Malawi as a strategic anti-communist ally. Although Malawi’s economy was considered relatively stable compared to others in the region, the pervasive reach of Banda’s government fostered a climate of fear. The Young Pioneers of Malawi, operating as a paramilitary and secret police force, held more influence than the national army and were largely responsible for suppressing opposition through intimidation.
Shift in International and Domestic Pressures
By the late 1980s, the end of the Cold War and the decline of apartheid in South Africa reduced Western support for Banda’s government, and international pressure for political reforms increased. Malawi’s economic situation deteriorated, and the regime lost much of its external backing. Banda’s declining health—he was nearly ninety years old—enabled his close associates, John Tembo and Cecilia Kadzamira, to assume many governing responsibilities and limit his day-to-day involvement. As Banda’s personal control waned, internal dissent grew, and the regime’s repressive apparatus became increasingly ineffective in containing opposition sentiment.
By the end of 1991, Malawi was the only country in southern Africa to retain a one-party system, with nearby nations such as Zambia, Tanzania, and Mozambique adopting multiparty structures. This regional shift emboldened segments of Malawi’s population to demand change. On 8 March 1992, Malawi’s Catholic bishops issued a pastoral letter criticizing human rights violations, sparking open criticism of the regime. Later that month, more than eighty Malawian opposition activists in exile met in Lusaka, Zambia, to coordinate strategies for democratic reforms in Malawi.
In April 1992, exiled union leader Chakufwa Chihana returned to Malawi and delivered a speech at Lilongwe International Airport, referring to the MCP as “a party of death and darkness” and calling for a national referendum. He was arrested immediately and sentenced to two years in prison with hard labor on charges of sedition. His arrest attracted international condemnation and fueled ongoing protests in Lilongwe and Blantyre, culminating in large-scale riots. Security forces used lethal force to disperse protesters, resulting in 38 fatalities. These events marked the most significant expression of public discontent against the MCP regime in three decades. In response, several international donors suspended non-humanitarian aid, isolating Malawi further.
In the face of growing dissent, the regime dissolved the National Assembly and called for one-party elections in June to fill 91 of the 141 legislative seats. Opposition groups, organized under a “Committee for a Democratic Alliance,” called for a boycott.[5] According to official figures, 45 candidates were returned unopposed, and five seats remained vacant due to disqualifications. In constituencies where voting took place, 62 incumbent legislators lost their seats. The regime announced an 80% voter turnout, but independent estimates suggested that fewer than 40% of eligible voters participated overall. In Blantyre, turnout was reported at 20%, and in certain areas only 10%.
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