| Aonidiella orientalis | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Suborder: | Sternorrhyncha |
| Family: | Diaspididae |
| Genus: | Aonidiella |
| Species: | A. orientalis |
| Binomial name | |
| Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead, 1894) | |
Aonidiella orientalis is a species of insect in the family Diaspididae, the armored scale insects. It is known commonly as the Oriental yellow scale. [1] It is an agricultural pest on a wide variety of crop plants. [1]
This is a scale insect, a tiny insect which is most easily identified by the female, which attaches itself to a host plant, loses its legs, and remains stationary covered by a somewhat rounded scale-like shield of wax. In this species, the female forms a flat, circular scale which is white, brown, or yellow in color. [1] It is up to 2.6 millimeters long. [2] The insect within is no more than 1.4 millimeters long. [1] The winged male of this species also produces a scale. [2]
This species is likely native to Asia. It can be found nearly worldwide today because it has been introduced to many areas with shipments of plants and then began a slow spread. It is common in many tropical and subtropical areas, and it can survive in greenhouses in cooler regions. It is not known from Europe. [2] Some ports check for this and other scales in quarantined plant shipments. [1]
The female attaches to the surface of a plant, forms a waxy shield, and lays eggs beneath it. [1] They are often viviparous, producing live young instead of laying eggs. [2] The larvae emerge and leave the shield; at this point they are called "crawlers". They roam the plant, feeding on sap by inserting their stylets. Males reach the adult stage at about 19 days. Females reach adulthood and yield the next generation of larvae at about 44 days. [1] Males have wings but no mouthparts, and they do not feed. [1] There are about three to five generations per year, depending on conditions. [2]
This species is highly polyphagous: it can feed on a wide variety of plant taxa. It has been found on most every kind of plant except conifers. It is problematic in many kinds of plant crops, including fruits, vegetables, herbs, medicinal plants, fiber plants, oil plants, and ornamental plants. [1] Crops affected include sisal hemp, tea, cotton, mastic, oil palms, neem, and many foods and flowers. [1]
The insect damages the plant by sucking sap, weakening it. The physical damage includes discoloration and deformation of leaves. Flowers and fruits fail to develop. When the insects feed on the fruits they are discolored and warped, reducing their value on the market. Infestations can kill plants, even established trees. [1]
Severe impacts can occur in places where the insect is newly introduced. It was first seen in papaya crops in Queensland in 1988, and it rapidly became the most serious pest in the local industry. [1] It was first found on mangoes in Israel in 1980; now it is established in mango groves throughout the surrounding region and is spreading to other local crops, such as olive and guava. [3] Some groves are doubly infested, also harboring populations of the related red scale (Aonidiella aurantii). [3] It was first found on neem in Cameroon in 1985 and had spread over one million kilometers by 1998, infesting many economically important trees. [4]
Infested twigs, branches, and shoots can be removed from trees, slowing the spread of the scale. Pesticides have been used, but are less popular now as attention turns to biological pest control. There are many natural enemies of the scale which can be reared and released in infested orchards, reducing scale populations. [1]
Natural enemies have been trialed in Queensland's papaya groves. Good results were observed with the parasitoid wasps Comperiella lemniscata and Encarsia citrina . [5] Other insects, such as the larva of the coconut moth (Batrachedra arenosella) and the lady beetles Lindores lophanthae , Chilocorus circumdatus , and C. baileyi have been helpful in severe infestations. [6]
Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
Whiteflies are Hemipterans that typically feed on the undersides of plant leaves. They comprise the family Aleyrodidae, the only family in the superfamily Aleyrodoidea. More than 1550 species have been described.
Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the superfamily Coccoidea. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.
The silverleaf whitefly is one of several species of whitefly that are currently important agricultural pests. A review in 2011 concluded that the silverleaf whitefly is actually a species complex containing at least 24 morphologically indistinguishable species.
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Bactrocera dorsalis, previously known as Dacus dorsalis and commonly referred to as the oriental fruit fly, is a species of tephritid fruit fly that is endemic to Southeast Asia. It is one of the major pest species in the genus Bactrocera with a broad host range of cultivated and wild fruits. Male B. dorsalis respond strongly to methyl eugenol, which is used to monitor and estimate populations, as well as to annhilate males as a form of pest control. They are also important pollinators and visitors of wild orchids, Bulbophyllum cheiri and Bulbophyllum vinaceum in Southeast Asia, which lure the flies using methyl eugenol.
Diaspididae is the largest family of scale insects with over 2650 described species in around 400 genera. As with all scale insects, the female produces a waxy protective scale beneath which it feeds on its host plant. Diaspidid scales are far more substantial than those of most other families, incorporating the exuviae from the first two nymphal instars and sometimes faecal matter and fragments of the host plant. These can be complex and extremely waterproof structures rather resembling a suit of armor. For this reason these insects are commonly referred to as armored scale insects. As it is so robust and firmly attached to the host plant, the scale often persists long after the insect has died.
The melon fly(Bactrocera cucurbitae) is a fruit fly of the family Tephritidae. It is a serious agricultural pest, particularly in Hawaii.
Aleurocanthus woglumi is a species of whitefly in the family Aleyrodidae. It is a pest of citrus crops, and is commonly known as the citrus blackfly because of its slate-blue colour. It originated in Asia, but has spread to other parts of the world. The parasitic wasps, Encarsia perplexa and Amitus hesperidum can help control the pest.
Encarsia is a large genus of minute parasitic wasps of the family Aphelinidae. The genus is very diverse with currently about 400 described species and worldwide distribution. The number of existing species is expected to be several times higher because many species are still undescribed. Encarsia is a very complex genus, with specimens showing both inter- and intra-specific variations, making morphological classification difficult.
Coccus viridis is a soft scale insect in the family Coccidae with a wide host range. It is commonly known as green scale or sometimes coffee green scale because it is a major pest of coffee crops throughout the world.
Paracoccus marginatus, commonly known as the papaya mealybug, is a small sap-sucking insect in the mealybug family, Pseudococcidae. It is found on a number of different hosts, including economically important tropical fruit trees and various ornamental plants.
Empoasca decipiens is a species of leafhopper belonging to the family Cicadellidae subfamily Typhlocybinae.The adults reach 3–4 millimetres (0.12–0.16 in) of length and a are homogenously green with whitish markings on its pronotum and vertex.E. decipiens is commonly referred to as the “green leafhopper” because of its colouration. The absence of clear stripes along the forewings can easily distinguish it from the similar leafhopper species E. vitis, but distinguishing it from other leafhoppers with the same colouration requires examination under a microscope. It is present in most of Europe, in eastern Palearctic ecozone, in North Africa, in the Near East, and in the Afro-tropical ecozone. Both nymphs and adults of this small insect are considered to be a very destructive pests on field crops, vegetables and greenhouse plants.
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Aulacaspis yasumatsui, or cycad aulacaspis scale (CAS), is a scale insect species in the genus Aulacaspis that feeds on cycad species such as Cycas revoluta or Dioon purpusii. Other common names include the cycad scale, the sago palm scale, and the Asian cycad scale. This is a serious pest of cycads which can kill its host plant.
Planococcus citri, commonly known as the citrus mealybug, is a species of mealybugs native to Asia. It has been introduced to the rest of the world, including Europe, the Americas, and Oceania, as an agricultural pest. It is associated with citrus, but it attacks a wide range of crop plants, ornamental plants, and wild flora.
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