Armando Calderón Sol

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Elecciones presidenciales de El Salvador de 1994 - Resultado por Departamento (primera vuelta).svg
Elecciones presidenciales de El Salvador de 1994 - Resultado por Departamento (segunda vuelta).svg
Maps showing the percent of the vote which Calderón Sol won in each Salvadoran department during the first (top) and second rounds (bottom) of the 1994 presidential election

In 1993, Calderón Sol named himself as ARENA's presidential candidate for the 1994 presidential election. Critics within ARENA accused him of stealing the party's nomination process while Calderón Sol argues that there was no real competition during the primary process against him. Prior to the election, a United States government official told The Washington Post that the U.S. government was worried that Calderón Sol's victory would lead to his allies resuming political violence as Calderón Sol's rhetoric was more hardline than Cristiani's. The official remarked that "[Calderón Sol] has all the bad qualities that D'Aubuisson had, but none of the latter's redeeming qualities". [3] [4]

Calderón Sol won the first round with 651,632 votes (49.11%) and faced Rubén Zamora of the FMLN–Democratic Change coalition in the second round. There, Calderón Sol defeated Zamora with 818,264 votes (68.35%). [5] : 290  [6] : 260  Calderón Sol was the first Salvadoran president elected after the end of the civil war. [7] He stepped down as ARENA's president after his election as President of El Salvador. Calderón Sol became President of El Salvador on 1 June 1994 succeeding Cristiani. Enrique Borgo Bustamante was Calderón Sol's vice president. [3]

Economic policies

During Calderón Sol's inaugural address, he promised to promote public participation in El Salvador's economy and decentralize government programs by strengthening the country's municipal governments. Calderón Sol continued the neoliberal National Economic and Social Development Plan implemented by Cristiani that aimed to privatize state-run industries to both reduce the government's involvement in the economy and gradually reduce poverty. He believed that industrial and commercial development would benefit the country's population. [8] : 86  El Salvador's telecommunications and electricity companies were privatized in 1996 and 1997, respectively, [3] but increased rates after privatization led to Calderón Sol issuing subsidies to both industries. [9] He also privatized the country's pension system and established the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources in 1997. [3]

In 1995, Calderón Sol announced the "Economic Platform for Social Development" that aimed to fix the exchange rate between the Salvadoran colón and the United States dollar, reduce tariffs, and maintain fiscal discipline. Of these, only the reduction of tariffs was successful as both imports and exports grew by over US$1 billion each. The exchange rate between the colón and the dollar was never fixed. [6] : 261  To achieve fiscal discipline, Calderón Sol got the Legislative Assembly to approve an increase of the value-added tax (VAT) from 10% to 13%. The VAT increase was approved when eight dissident FMLN deputies led by Joaquín Villalobos voted in favor of the increase. They later left the FMLN and formed the Democratic Party in what Calderón Sol described as his best "political move". [3] The 30% VAT increase was highly controversial. It was increased to allow the government to raise more funds and cut its fiscal deficit, but from 1994 to 1998, El Salvador's fiscal deficit increased from 0.7% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) to 2.1% [9] The VAT increase politically damaged ARENA electorally [3] as the party lost 11 seats during the 1997 legislative election [5] : 286  and its vote share fell by almost 10%. [5] : 284  Tax evasion was also common in El Salvador's economy during Calderón Sol's presidency, [8] : 86  and former members of Calderón Sol's government claimed that his government was engaged in several backroom deals. [6] : 260 

Social policies

Calderón Sol promised to spend up to 50% of the national budget on social programs in education, health, housing, pension reform, and human development in his Social Development Plan. [6] : 262  [8] : 86–87  In 1995, he announced the Ten-Year Plan for Educational Reform that called for expanding access to schooling for young Salvadorans. [9] Despite this promise, spending only ever reached around 25% of the budget each year. [6] : 262  [8] : 86–87  In 1994, bus workers blockaded the Pan-American Highway near San Miguel demanding higher bus fares. Calderón Sol ordered the PNC to forcibly clear the blockade resulting in several bus workers being killed. [3]

Justice reforms

During Calderón Sol's inaugural address, he promised to "forge a peace that will be an example for the world" ("hacer una paz que sea un ejemplo para el mundo") and to uphold the Chapultepec Peace Accords. He stated his goal was to cement a legacy of democracy in El Salvador and distance the country from its past authoritarian and military governments. [1] : 137  [3] [6] : 260  Calderón Sol was responsible for overseeing the demobilization of over 55,000 civil war combatants from both the Armed Forces of El Salvador and the FMLN, but he faced opposition from those who resisted demobilization. A few months into his term, former members of the National Police robbed the Commercial Bank in San Salvador for 1.5 million colones, killing 4 people. On 26 September 1994, hundreds of former soldiers attacked the Legislative Assembly and held 29 deputies hostage for three days while demanding financial compensation for civil war veterans. [3]

Calderón Sol also oversaw the expansion of the National Civil Police (PNC), the new police force created by the Chapultepec Peace Accords. He was accused of violating the terms of the peace accords by allowing an excessive number of former armed forces personnel into the PNC's ranks. [3] He appointed Rodrigo Ávila Avilés as the PNC's director. [4] In 1996, Calderón Sol approved a law passed by ARENA in the Legislative Assembly that gave mayors immunity from criminal prosecution. He defended the law, arguing that violators of the law must be punished but that incumbent mayors should not be subject to "political intrigue and filth" ("intriga y suciedad política"). He referred to those calling for him to veto the law as "political pigs" ("cerdos políticos"), but the Presidential Communications Office walked this back and claimed that Calderón Sol actually said "pseudo-politicians" ("seudos políticos"). In fact, during Calderón Sol's presidency, he only exerted his veto power 3 or 4 times. [3]

According to the Proceso magazine published by the Central American University (UCA), El Salvador suffered a stagnant economy and high unemployment during Calderón Sol's presidency due to high crime rates. [9] To curb violence, Calderón Sol implemented stricter penalties for those convicted of violent crimes. In 1996, the Legislative Assembly approved the reinstatement of capital punishment for those convicted of murder, rape, and kidnapping, but since this required an amendment to the country's constitution, this was never implemented. Instead, a maximum prison sentence of 50 years was implemented. [4] ARENA criticized the implementation of a criminal justice reforms in 1998, with writers for the El Diario de Hoy newspaper describing the acquittal of individuals for misconduct by police officers, prosecutors, or judges as "absurd". [3]

Foreign policy

Calderon Sol (fourth from left) with U.S. president Bill Clinton and other Central American leaders on 11 March 1999 President Bill Clinton with Central American leaders.jpg
Calderón Sol (fourth from left) with U.S. president Bill Clinton and other Central American leaders on 11 March 1999

In 1995, Calderón Sol received Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the secretary-general of the United Nations, in El Salvador as Boutros-Ghali visited to oversee the implementation of the Chapultepec Peace Accords. [3] That same year, the United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador came to an end. [4]

Calderón Sol received U.S. president Bill Clinton in El Salvador on 10 March 1999. [10] During the visit, Calderón Sol asked Clinton to delay the deportation of Salvadorans back to El Salvador and to grant amnesty to those in the United States illegally. [11] The following day, Calderón Sol attended a summit in Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala with Clinton, Guatemalan president Álvaro Arzú, Honduran president Carlos Roberto Flores, Costa Rican president Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, Dominican president Leonel Fernández, and Belizean prime minister Said Musa. [12] : 91 

Post-presidency

Calderon Sol (third from left) with former ARENA presidents Alfredo Cristiani, Antonio Saca and Francisco Flores in 2009 Former Presidents and First Ladies of El Salvador.jpg
Calderón Sol (third from left) with former ARENA presidents Alfredo Cristiani, Antonio Saca and Francisco Flores in 2009

At the end of Calderón Sol's presidency in 1999, an opinion poll conducted by UCA's Institute of Public Opinion (IUDOP) found that he had a final approval rating of 58.9%, the highest of his presidency. [9] Another poll conducted by IUDOP found that two-thirds of Salvadorans considered their economic situation and safety from crime to have either not changed or deteriorated during Calderón Sol's presidency. [4] He left office on 1 June 1999 [2] and was succeeded by Francisco Flores, another member of ARENA. [8] : 87  After Calderón Sol left the presidency, he remained involved in Salvadoran politics. [3] At some point, he was a deputy of the Central American Parliament (PARLACEN) representing El Salvador, [7] ARENA's honorary president, and the president of the Union of Latin American Parties. [4]

Calderón Sol initially supported and compared himself to his successor Flores. He praised Flores' dollarization of the Salvadoran economy, claiming that he wanted to do the same during his presidency but that he did not believe it was popular enough. Eventually, however, Calderón Sol came to oppose Flores. [3] Calderón Sol was critical of a 2010 apology issued by President Mauricio Funes (an FMLN member) that was made "in the name of the state of El Salvador" [13] for atrocities committed by the Salvadoran government during the civil war such as the El Mozote massacre. Calderón Sol remarked that "the State should never apologize" ("el Estado jamás debió pedir perdón"). [8] : 91 

Personal life

Calderón Sol married Elizabeth Aguirre. The couple had three children. [2] After Calderón Sol left the presidency, he pledged to focus his time on his family. [3]

Death

In September 2017, Calderón Sol's sister Milena stated that Calderón Sol had been chronically ill with lung cancer [14] for a year. [15] That month, he was admitted to an intensive care unit at a hospital in Houston, Texas, United States. He died there on 9 October 2017 at 12:30 a.m. CDT. [7] His body was returned to El Salvador on 12 October [15] and he was buried at the San José de la Montaña Church in San Salvador on 14 October. [16]

The day after Calderón Sol's death, the Legislative Assembly declared three days of national mourning [17] at ARENA's request. [18] The National Party-led Honduran government also declared three days of national mourning the day prior as the party described Calderón Sol as "always demonstrating himself as a friend of Honduras" ("siempre demostró ser amigo de Honduras"). [19]

Awards and honors

During Calderón Sol's presidency, he was awarded the Order of General José Dolores Estrada, Battle of San Jacinto by Nicaragua, the grand cross of the Order of the Sun of Peru by Peru, the collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic by Spain, and the grand cordon of the Order of Brilliant Jade by Taiwan. He also received an honorary doctorate from Sōka University in Japan and the George F. Hixson Award from Kiwanis Club International in the United States. [2]

Electoral history

His Excellency
Armando Calderón Sol
Armando Calderon Sol.jpg
Calderón Sol in 2009
76th President of El Salvador
In office
1 June 1994 –1 June 1999
YearOfficePartyMain opponent and partyVotes for SolResultSwingRef.
Total%P.±%
1985 Deputy of the Legislative Assembly ARENA N/AN/AWonN/A [2]
1988 Mayor of San Salvador ARENA 1stN/AWonGain [2]
1991 Mayor of San Salvador ARENA 1stWonHold [2]
1994 President of El Salvador ARENA Rubén Zamora FMLN–CD 641,10849.111stN/ARunoff [5] : 290 
818,26468.351stN/AWonHold [5] : 290 

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cañas Dinarte, Carlos & Scarlett Cortez, Violeta (2006). Aguilar Avilés, Gilberto & De Aguilar, Lilian (eds.). Historia del Órgano Legislativo de la República de El Salvador: 1824–2006 [History of the Legislative Organ of the Republic of El Salvador: 1826–2006](PDF) (in Spanish) (IV ed.). San Salvador, El Salvador: Albacrome. OCLC   319689765. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Presidentes de El Salvador – Dr. Armando Calderón Sol" [Presidents of El Salvador – Dr. Armando Calderón Sol]. Government of El Salvador (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Vaquerano, Ricardo (14 October 2017). "Calderón Sol: El "Traidor" que Empujó a ARENA Hacia la Paz" [Calderón Sol: The "Traitor" Who Pushed ARENA to Make Peace]. El Faro (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ortiz de Zárate Arce, Roberto, ed. (20 October 2017). "Armando Calderón Sol: Presidente de la República (1994–1999)" [Armando Calderón Sol: President of the Republic (1994–1999)]. Barcelona Center for International Affairs (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Krennerich, Michael (2005). "El Salvador". In Nohlen, Dieter (ed.). Elections in the Americas A Data Handbook Volume 1: North America, Central America, and the Caribbean. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 270–299. ISBN   9780191557934. OCLC   58051010 . Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bernal Ramírez, Luis Guillermo & Quijano de Batres, Ana Elia, eds. (2009). Historia 2 El Salvador [History 2 El Salvador](PDF). Historia El Salvador (in Spanish). El Salvador: Ministry of Education. ISBN   9789992363683. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  7. 1 2 3 Mendoza, Beatriz (9 October 2017). "Falle Expresidente Armando Calderón Sol" [Former President Armando Calderón Sol Dies]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 9 October 2017.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 López Velásquez, Eugenia (30 June 2017). "Prácticas Autoritarias y Democráticas de Poder en El Salvador. Tendencias en el Pasado y en el Presente" [Authoritarian and Democratic Practices of Power in El Salvador. Tendencies in the Past and in the Present]. Humanities and Social Sciences Magazine (in Spanish) (9). University of El Salvador: 57–94. doi: 10.5377/rhcs.v0i9.6624 . Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Calderón, Beatriz (10 October 2017). "Una Mirada al Quinquenio de Armando Calderón Sol" [A Look at Armando Calderón Sol's Five-Year Term]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  10. ↑ Erazo, Ronald (28 August 2024). "Los Presidentes de Estados Unidos que han Visitado El Salvador a lo Largo de la Historia" [The Presidents of the United States That Have Visited El Salvador Throughout History]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  11. ↑ "Clinton to Central America". Managing Labor Migration in the Twenty-First Century. 6 (4). University of California, Davis. April 1999. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  12. ↑ "President Clinton's Meetings & Telephone Calls with Foreign Leaders, Representatives, and Dignitaries from January 23, 1993 thru January 19, 2001" (PDF). Clinton Presidential Center . May 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  13. ↑ Renteria, Nelson (16 January 2010). Cooney, Peter (ed.). "El Salvador's Funes Apologizes for Civil War Abuses". Reuters . San Salvador, El Salvador. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  14. ↑ Calderón, Beatriz & Alemán, Francisco (5 September 2017). "Revelan que el Expresidente Calderón Sol Padece Cáncer" [They Reveal that Former President Calderón Sol Has Cancer]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  15. 1 2 Pacheco, Melissa (13 October 2017). "Calderón Sol Fue Recibido con los Máximos Honores" [Calderón Sol Was Received With Full Honors]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  16. ↑ Laguan, Jonathan & Rivera, Melissa (14 October 2017). "Realizan Actos Fúnebres del Expresidente Calderón Sol" [Funeral Services Held for Former President Calderón Sol]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  17. ↑ Calderón, Beatriz & Pacheco, Melissa (10 October 2017). "Asamblea Decreta Tres Días de Duelo Nacional por Calderón Sol" [The Assembly Declares Three Days of National Mourning for Calderón Sol]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  18. ↑ Calderón, Beatriz (9 October 2017). "ARENA Pide Tres Días de Duelo Nacional por Muerte de Calderón Sol" [ARENA Asks for Three Days of National Mourning for Calderón Sol's Death]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
  19. ↑ Calderón, Beatriz (9 October 2017). "Partido Gobernante de Honduras Acuerda Decretar Tres Días de Duelo por Calderón Sol" [Governing Party of Honduras Approves Declaring Three Days of Mourning for Calderón Sol]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 January 2026.
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