Augochlora

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Augochlora
Temporal range: Burdigalian to Present
Augochlora pura f.jpg
Female Augochlora pura
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Halictidae
Tribe: Augochlorini
Genus: Augochlora
Smith, 1853
Subgenera

Augochlora is a genus in the family Halictidae, with 127 valid species found across the Nearctic and Neotropic zones. [1] The genus is known for its typical metallic greenish blue color and small size, with the greek for Augochloros meaning shining green. [2]

Contents

Taxonomy

Augochlora is taxonomically located within the tribe Augochlorini. This tribe has many genera that can be separated in groups, with the Augochlora genus being in the Augochlora group alongside Augochlorella, Ceratalictus and Pereirapis. [3] Within the genus there are three subgenera -  Augochlora s str., Oxystoglossa, and the extinct Electraugochlora. [1] The distribution of this genus across the Americas is not even. Only a few species are present in the United States, approximately 40 are in Mesoamerica, and the rest are in the Neotropics. [2]

Subgenera

Oxystoglossa

Out of the 126 species of Augochlora recognized in 2022, 29 species fell within the subgenus Oxystoglossa. Recent studies suggest otherwise, claiming there are actually 32 species. They are distributed from the Southern USA to central Argentina. The subgenus is identified via different traits for the males and females. The male has a long setae on the outer lobe of ventral gonostylus and a light yellow basitarus. The female has appressed setae on the pseudopygidial area and a smaller preapical tooth  They both are also a less iridescent blue. [4]

Augochlora s str.

Augochlora sensu stricto has 97 species (as of 2022) and is identifiable by its transverse basal elevation on the labrum and noticeably bidentate mandible. [5] While they are known as being a solitary species that nests in soil, there is evidence of species having broods with a social phase. [6] There used to be a fourth subgenus, AugochloraMycterochlora that was since combined with Augochlora Augochlora in the year 2000. [7]

Electraugochlora

Electraugochlora is a subgenera of Augochlora that is extinct. It was determined to be a subgenera based on one specimen found in Miocene Dominican amber. The description of the females of this subgenus are that of the one specimen "Mandible with moderate subapical tooth. Labral basal elevation orbicular, low and not protuberant (figs. 80, 81). Angle of epistomal sulcus only weakly protruding into clypeus (figs. 80, 81). Preoccipital ridge rounded. S1 without median ridge or spine." The only individual found was a female, making the male phenotype unknown. [5]

Biology

Description

Augochlora regina, female, March 2012 Dominican Republic, formerly A. elegans Augochlora regina, U, side, Dominican Republic 2012-09-27-11.12.59 ZS PMax.jpg
Augochlora regina, female, March 2012 Dominican Republic, formerly A. elegans

The bees of the genus Augochlora are small to moderate in size. All species are metallic and they come in a variety of colors. The most notable coloration is greenish blue there are a few species in the tropics with a blue, red, purple or black hue. Their bodies are considered andreniform, having a long abdomen and slender form. [8]

Behavior and life cycle

The genus comprises solitary and primitively eusocial species that nest primarily in forests. Most are known to nest in rotting wood, with a few nesting in soil banks. [9] [4] Like other solitary bee species, the solitary nests are often built by a single female and vary in both orientation and arrangement. Some consist of pillars holding up cell clusters while others are cells deriving from a main tunnel. The reasoning as to why Augochlora females choose certain nesting sites are unknown. [10] [11]

In some species, it has been observed that nests are layered with a waxy material. Studies on the species Augochlora pura have indicated a connection between this material and their Dufour's gland. [12] It is thought that this waxy layer is there to prevent desiccation and provide protection from pathogens. [13]

As typical with other solitary bees, the females provide each cell with a ball of pollen. This genus appears to provision its young with pollen from many different flowers. Augochlora esox collects pollen for its eggs from six different families of plants, and Augochlora pura collects from 40 different species of plants from 20 families. [14]

Several species in this genus have been shown to be bi or multi voltine, meaning they have multiple generations in a year. [14] [11] Flight seasons in this genus are long, with Augochlora pura being observed from April to September. [9]

In the eusocial species there are foundress females and worker females. One example of this is the species Augochlora phoemonoe. Their nest starts with one female bee acting as a solitary bee. However once her daughters are born the eusocial phase begins and the foundress stays around the nest. Within the nest, the daughters or worker females perform more of the locomotive actions, such as pollen collecting and guarding the nest. The foundress however, starts all communications and is responsible for reproduction, having more developed ovaries than the daughter bees. The morphology of both castes are similar, with the foundress having a slightly larger size. [6]

Distribution

Map of the distribution of the Augochlora genus provided by GBIF Map of Augochlora.png
Map of the distribution of the Augochlora genus provided by GBIF

Species are distributed throughout all of South America up to the Southern parts of Canada and on some of the Caribbean islands. They do not live in very dry areas, choosing to nest primarily in forests. [4]

Not much is known about the population status of this genus. On the IUCN Red List, there is only one species in the genus, Augochlora smaragdina, and it is listed under least concern, with population trends unknown. [15] On Nature Serve there are a few species with a population status including: [16]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Lepeco, Anderson; Gonçalves, Rodrigo Barbosa (2022-03-04). "Bayesian and parsimony phylogeny of Augochlora bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) based on morphology: insights for their biogeography and natural history". Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny. 80: 99–115. doi: 10.3897/asp.80.e71943 . ISSN   1864-8312.
  2. 1 2 Cane, James H. (March 1995). "The Bee Genera of North and Central America (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Charles D. Michener , Ronald J. McGinley , Bryan N. Danforth". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 70 (1): 87–88. doi:10.1086/418910. ISSN   0033-5770 – via The University of Chicago Press Journals.
  3. ↑ GonçAlves, Rodrigo B. (2016-01-18). "A molecular and morphological phylogeny of the extant Augochlorini (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) with comments on implications for biogeography". Systematic Entomology. 41 (2): 430–440. Bibcode:2016SysEn..41..430G. doi:10.1111/syen.12166. ISSN   0307-6970.
  4. 1 2 3 Lepeco, Anderson; Gonçalves, Rodrigo Barbosa (2023-03-15). "A review of Augochlora (Oxystoglossella) bees from South America: unexpected Amazonian diversity and assessment of vulnerable species". Journal of Natural History. 57 (9–12): 608–664. Bibcode:2023JNatH..57..608L. doi:10.1080/00222933.2023.2195564. ISSN   0022-2933.
  5. 1 2 Engel, Michael (2000). "Classification of the Bee Tribe Augochlorini (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 250: 1. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2000)250<0001:cotbta>2.0.co;2. ISSN   0003-0090 . Retrieved 2025-10-30.
  6. 1 2 Dalmazzo, M.; Roig-Alsina, A. (2015-08-01). "Social biology of Augochlora (Augochlora) phoemonoe (Hymenoptera, Halictidae) reared in laboratory nests". Insectes Sociaux. 62 (3): 315–323. doi:10.1007/s00040-015-0412-8. ISSN   1420-9098.
  7. ↑ Wcislo, W.T. & Gonzalez, Victor & Engel, M.S.. (2003). "Nesting and social behavior of a wood-dwelling neotropical bee, Augochlora isthmii (Schwarz), and notes on a new species, A. alexanderi Engel (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 76: 588–602.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Michener, Charles D.; McGinley, Ronald J.; Danforth, Bryan N. (1994). The bee genera of North and Central America: Hymenoptera: Apoidea. Washington: Smithsonian Inst. Press. ISBN   978-1-56098-256-2.
  9. 1 2 Stockhammer, Karl A. (1966). "Nesting Habits and Life Cycle of a Sweat Bee, Augochlora pura (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 39 (2): 157–192. ISSN   0022-8567. JSTOR   25083506.
  10. ↑ Choe, Jae C.; Crespi, Bernard J. (1997). The Evolution of Social Behavior in Insects and Arachnids. Cambridge University Press. pp. 270–289. ISBN   978-0-521-58977-2.
  11. 1 2 Dalmazzo, Milagros; Alsina, Arturo Roig (2012-05-28). "Nest structure and notes on the social behavior of Augochlora amphitrite (Schrottky) (Hymenoptera, Halictidae)". Journal of Hymenoptera Research. 26: 17–29. doi: 10.3897/jhr.26.2440 . ISSN   1314-2607.
  12. ↑ May, Dorothy G. K. (1974). "An Investigation of the Chemical Nature and Origin of the Waxy Lining of the Brood Cells of a Sweat Bee, Augochlora pura (Hymenoptera, Halictidae)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 47 (4): 504–516. ISSN   0022-8567. JSTOR   25082686.
  13. ↑ May, Dorothy G. K. (1972). "Water Uptake during Larval Development of a Sweat Bee, Augochlora pura (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 45 (4): 439–449. ISSN   0022-8567. JSTOR   25082525.
  14. 1 2 Zillikens, Anne; Steiner, Josefina; Mihalkó, Zita (2001-08-01). "Nests of Augochlora (A.) esox in Bromeliads, a Previously Unknown Site for Sweat Bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)". Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment. 36 (2): 137–142. Bibcode:2001SNFE...36..137Z. doi:10.1076/snfe.36.2.137.2133. ISSN   0165-0521.
  15. ↑ IUCN (2020-02-08). Augochlora smaragdina: Martínez López, O.G., Vandame, R.V. & Walker, A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2024: e.T152137573A152147668 (Report). International Union for Conservation of Nature. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2024-1.rlts.t152137573a152147668.en.
  16. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org. Retrieved 2025-11-13.
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