Halictidae

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Halictidae
Halictus scabiosae MHNT.jpg
Halictus scabiosae - MHNT
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Clade: Anthophila
Family: Halictidae
Thomson, 1869, nom. protect.
Subfamilies

Halictidae is the second-largest family of bees [1] (clade Anthophila) with nearly 4,500 species. [2] They are commonly called sweat bees (especially the smaller species), as they are often attracted to perspiration. [3] [4] Halictid species are an extremely diverse group that can vary greatly in appearance. These bees occur all over the world and are found on every continent [4] except Antarctica. [5] Usually dark-colored (frequently brown or black) and often metallic, halictids are found in various sizes, colors and patterns. Several species are all or partly green and a few are red, purple, or blue. [4] A number of them have yellow markings, especially the males, which commonly have yellow faces, a pattern widespread among the various families of bees. The family is one of many with short tongues [6] and is best distinguished by the arcuate (strongly curved) basal vein found on the wing. [7] Females in this family tend to be larger than the males. [6] They are the group for which the term 'eusocial' was first coined by entomologist, Suzanne Batra.

Contents

Ecology

Most halictids nest in the ground, often in habitats like clay soil and river banks, [6] though a few nest in wood. They mass-provision their young; a mass of pollen and nectar is formed inside a waterproof cell, an egg laid upon it, and the cell sealed off, so the larva is given all of its food at one time, as opposed to "progressive provisioning", where a larva is fed repeatedly as it grows, as in honey bees. Some species line their tunnels with lactone secretions to help workers return to the nest. [6] It is thought that each individual bee has its own unique chemical signature. All species (except for kleptoparasites) are pollen feeders and may be important pollinators.[ citation needed ]

Systropha planidens, a specialist pollinator of Convolvulus Systropha planidens.jpg
Systropha planidens , a specialist pollinator of Convolvulus

Eusociality

Many species in the Halictidae are eusocial at least in part, such as Lasioglossum malachurum , with fairly well-defined queen and worker castes (though not the same as the caste system in honey bees), and certain manifestations of their social behavior appear to be facultative in various lineages. [8] The first group of offspring continues to build and protect the nest as well as gather food for a new brood of larvae. An impressive variety of social and nesting behaviors are exhibited by halictids including solitary, communal, semi-social and primitively eusocial. [4] Different biotic and abiotic factors can even affect these behaviors such as floral resources, location, altitude, season, and climate. [4]

Those species which do not have a permanent, rigid, division of labor, such as Lasioglossum zephyrus or Halictus rubicundus , are considered primitively eusocial. [9] Another example of a primitive eusocial bee species from this family is Halictus ligatus , for which aggression is one of the most influential behavioral attitudes for establishing hierarchy and social organization within the colony. [10] Primitively eusocial species such as these provide insight into the early evolution of eusociality. [10] Halictus sexcinctus , which exhibits social, communal, and eusocial organization, provides insight into the evolutionary reversal of eusociality. Phylogenetic data from this species suggests that a communal strategy serves as a transitional step between eusociality and a reversion back to solitary nesting. [11]

Kleptoparasitism

Several genera and species of halictids are kleptoparasites of other bees (mostly other halictids or bees of similar size [6] ). The behavior has evolved at least nine times independently within the family. The most well-known and common are species in the genus Sphecodes , which are somewhat wasp-like in appearance (often shining black with blood-red abdomen- German: Blutbienen - usually 4–9 mm in body length); the female Sphecodes enters the cell with the provision mass, eats the host egg, and lays an egg of her own in its place.[ citation needed ]

"Nocturnal" species

Halictidae is one of the four bee families that contain some crepuscular species; these halictids are active only at dusk or in the early evening, so are technically considered "vespertine" (e.g. in the subgenus Sphecodogastra of Lasioglossum ), or sometimes truly nocturnal (e.g. in the genus Megalopta , such as the species M. genalis ). [12] These bees, as is typical in such cases, have greatly enlarged ocelli. The other families with some crepuscular species are Andrenidae, Colletidae, and Apidae.[ citation needed ]

Economic importance

Some Halictids are important in the pollination of crops. Among these are the alkali bee, [13] Lasioglossum vierecki [14] and Lasioglossum leucozonium . [15] While some halictid species are oligoleges (e.g., Rophites algirus which only visits the flowers of hedgenettle plants. [2] ), most are generalists making them potentially valuable overall pollinators. [16]

Stinging

A male Halictus rubicundus with its tongue out, licking sweat Halictus rubicundus 394603187.jpg
A male Halictus rubicundus with its tongue out, licking sweat

Only females have the ability to deliver a sting. [17] Due to their non-aggressive nature, they are only likely to sting if disturbed; the sting is minor. [6] The most common instances of stinging occur from swatting at or accidentally making contact with a halictid trying to get a lick of one's sweat, seeking the dissolved electrolytes. [18]

Phylogeny

Halictidae belongs to the hymenopteran subclade Aculeata (stinging Hymenoptera), superfamily Apoidea (bees and wasps), series Anthophila (true bees). Fossils from this family are typically found in amber from the Baltic Region and the Dominican Republic and imply that Halictidae have existed since at least 96-75 million years ago. [2] The oldest fossil record of Halictidae dates back to Early Eocene [19] with a number of species, such as Neocorynura electra [20] and Augochlora leptoloba [21] known from amber deposits. Currently, the family is divided into four subfamilies, many genera, and more than 2000 known species. Rophitinae appears to be the sister group to the remaining three subfamilies (Nomiinae, Nomioidinae, Halictinae) based on both morphology and molecular data. [22]

Classification

Subfamily Rophitinae:

Subfamily Nomiinae:

Subfamily Nomioidinae:

Subfamily Halictinae:
Tribe Halictini

Tribe Thrinchostomini

Tribe Augochlorini

Unplaced fossil halictines:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bee</span> Clade of insects

Bees are winged insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their roles in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the western honey bee, for producing honey. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea. They are currently considered a clade, called Anthophila. There are over 20,000 known species of bees in seven recognized biological families. Some species – including honey bees, bumblebees, and stingless bees – live socially in colonies while most species (>90%) – including mason bees, carpenter bees, leafcutter bees, and sweat bees – are solitary.

<i>Halictus rubicundus</i> Species of bee

Halictus rubicundus, the orange-legged furrow bee, is a species of sweat bee found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. H. rubicundus entered North America from the Old World during one of two main invasions of Halictus subgenera. These invasions likely occurred via the Bering land bridge at times of low sea level during the Pleistocene epoch.

<i>Lasioglossum malachurum</i> Species of bee

Lasioglossum malachurum, the sharp-collared furrow bee, is a small European halictid bee. This species is obligately eusocial, with queens and workers, though the differences between the castes are not nearly as extreme as in honey bees. Early taxonomists mistakenly assigned the worker females to a different species from the queens. They are small, shiny, mostly black bees with off-white hair bands at the bases of the abdominal segments. L. malachurum is one of the more extensively studied species in the genus Lasioglossum, also known as sweat bees. Researchers have discovered that the eusocial behavior in colonies of L. malachurum varies significantly dependent upon the region of Europe in which each colony is located.

<i>Lasioglossum</i> Genus of insects

The sweat bee genus Lasioglossum is the largest of all bee genera, containing over 1800 species in numerous subgenera worldwide. They are highly variable in size, coloration, and sculpture; among the more unusual variants, some are cleptoparasites, some are nocturnal, and some are oligolectic. Most Lasioglossum species nest in the ground, but some nest in rotten logs.

Augochlora leptoloba is a species of sweat bee in the genus Augochlora and the extinct monotypic subgenus Electraugochlora.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halictinae</span> Subfamily of bees

Within the insect order Hymenoptera, the Halictinae are the largest, most diverse, and most recently diverged of the four halictid subfamilies. They comprise over 2400 bee species belonging to the five taxonomic tribes Augochlorini, Thrinchostomini, Caenohalictini, Sphecodini, and Halictini, which some entomologists alternatively organize into the two tribes Augochlorini and Halictini.

<i>Lasioglossum zephyrus</i> Species of bee

Lasioglossum zephyrus is a sweat bee of the family Halictidae, found in the U.S. and Canada. It appears in the literature primarily under the misspelling "zephyrum". It is considered a primitively eusocial bee, although it may be facultatively solitary. The species nests in burrows in the soil.

<i>Halictus ligatus</i> Species of bee

Halictus ligatus is a species of sweat bee from the family Halictidae, among the species that mine or burrow into the ground to create their nests. H. ligatus, like Lasioglossum zephyrus, is a primitively eusocial bee species, in which aggression is one of the most influential behaviors for establishing hierarchy within the colony, and H. ligatus exhibits both reproductive division of labor and overlapping generations.

<i>Megalopta genalis</i> Species of bee

Megalopta genalis is a nocturnal species of the family Halictidae, otherwise known as the sweat bees. The bee is native to Central and South America. Its eyes have anatomical adaptations that make them 27 times more sensitive to light than diurnal bees, giving it the ability to be nocturnal. However, its eyes are not completely different from other diurnal bees, but are still apposition compound eyes. The difference therefore lies purely in adaptations to become nocturnal, increasing the success of foraging and minimizing the danger of doing so from predation. This species has served as a model organism in studies of social behavior and night vision in bees.

<i>Lasioglossum cressonii</i> Species of insect

Lasioglossum cressonii is a species in the sweat bee genus Lasioglossum, family Halictidae. Halictidae exhibit eusocial hierarchy behavior which is interesting given that eusociality in this group is hard to evolve and easy to lose. L. cressonii is found throughout North America. L. cressonii have been shown to be important pollinators for apple trees and many other North American native plants.

<i>Lasioglossum vierecki</i> Species of bee

Lasioglossum vierecki, also known as Dialictus vierecki and Halictus vierecki, is a sand sweat bee and is part of the family Halictidae of the order Hymenoptera. It is found in the eastern half of North America from Minnesota to the New England States down to Georgia and Louisiana and up in Manitoba and Ontario. Commonly found in sandy areas, it pollinates various flowers such as grass-leaved goldenrod and rattlesnake master.

<i>Lasioglossum leucozonium</i> Species of bee

Lasioglossum leucozonium, also known as Lasioglossum similis, is a widespread solitary sweat bee found in North America, Europe, Asia, and parts of northern Africa. While it is now a common bee in North America, population genetic analysis has shown that it is actually an introduced species in this region. This population was most likely founded by a single female bee.

<i>Augochlora pura</i> Species of insect

Augochlora pura is a solitary sweat bee found primarily in the Eastern United States. It is known for its bright green color and its tendency to forage on a variety of plants. Inhabiting rotting logs, this bee can produce up to three generations per year. Both males and females have been observed licking sweat from human skin, most likely seeking salt.

<i>Halictus sexcinctus</i> Species of bee

Halictus sexcinctus, commonly referred to as the six-banded furrow bee, is a species of sweat bee found throughout Europe and as far east as Asian Turkey and Iraq. The H. sexcinctus can be easily confused with the closely related species, Halictus scabiosae, due to very similar morphological features. H. sexcinctus show a social polymorphism in which different colonies can exhibit solitary, communal, or eusocial structure. Due to this large variance in social organization, it was suspected that it was not one species at all, but rather multiple, cryptic species. However, genetic analysis was able to confirm these varying populations as one species. H. sexcinctus will forage from multiple flower species, but prefers plant species with wide-open flowers. Their nests can be found dug into the ground in loamy or sandy soil.

<i>Dialictus</i> Subgenus of insects

Dialictus is a subgenus of sweat bees belonging to the genus Lasioglossum. Most of the members of this subgenus have a metallic appearance, while some are non-metallic. There are over 630 species worldwide. They are commonly found in the Northern Hemisphere and are found in abundance in North America. Members of this subgenus also have very diverse forms of social structure making them model organisms for studying the social behavior of bees.

<i>Augochlorella</i> Genus of bees

Augochlorella is a genus in the bee family Halictidae, commonly called sweat bees. They display metallic coloration, ranging from reddish to gold to bluish green, as is typical for other genera in the tribe Augochlorini.

<i>Augochloropsis</i> Genus of bees

Augochloropsis is a genus of brilliant metallic, often blue-green, sweat bees in the family Halictidae. There are at least 140 described species in Augochloropsis.

<i>Augochlorella aurata</i> Species of insect

Augochlorella aurata is a primitively eusocial species of sweat bee in the family Halictidae. It is one of three species of Augochlorella found east of the Rocky Mountains in North America. The body is a brilliant green metallic color, diffused to varying extents with a copper, red, or yellow color. A. aurata is a generalist pollen feeder and likely an important pollinator for some horticultural crops. A common name is golden green sweat bee.

<i>Megalopta</i> Genus of bees

Megalopta is a widespread neotropical genus of bees in the tribe Augochlorini in family Halictidae, known as the sweat bees. They are the largest of the five nocturnal genera in Augochlorini. Most have pale integumentary pigmentation, and all have large ocelli, most likely a feature of their nocturnal behavior. They live in tropical Central America and the entirety of South America. The subgenus Noctoraptor is cleptoparasitic. They are not known from the fossil record.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eicosanolide</span> Organic chemical compound

Eicosanolide is an organic compound with the chemical formula C20H38O2. It is a cyclic ester or lactone, more specifically a macrolide.

References

  1. ↑ Danforth, Bryan N.; Cardinal, Sophie; Praz, Christophe; Almeida, Eduardo A.B.; Michez, Denis (2013). "The Impact of Molecular Data on Our Understanding of Bee Phylogeny and Evolution". Annual Review of Entomology. 58 (1): 57–78. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153633. PMID   22934982.
  2. 1 2 3 "Bee Diversity". Museum of the Earth. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  3. ↑ "Sweat Bees". Missouri Department of Conservation. Archived from the original on 2015-09-26.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 "Sweat bees". Florida Wildflower Foundation. 2017-08-15. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  5. ↑ Bolt, Clay (16 June 2023). "Five myths about bees: The truth about these remarkable insects". World Wide Fund for Nature.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hauze, Deena. "Halictidae (halictid bees, sweat bees)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  7. ↑ "sweat bees, halictid bees". Featured Creatures. University of Florida Entomology and Nematology Department. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
  8. ↑ Yanega, D. (1993-06-01). "Environmental influences on male production and social structure in Halictus rubicundus (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)". Insectes Sociaux. 40 (2): 169–180. doi:10.1007/BF01240705. ISSN   0020-1812. S2CID   44934383.
  9. ↑ Batra, Suzanne W. T. (1966). "The life cycle and behavior of the primitively social bee Lasioglossum zephyrum (Halictidae)". Univisty of Kansas Science Bulletin. 46: 359–423.
  10. 1 2 Pabalan, N.; Davey, K.G.; Packer, L. (2000). "Escalation of aggressive interactions during staged encounters in Halictus ligatus Say (Hymenoptera: Halictidae), with a comparison of circle tube behaviors with other halictine species". Journal of Insect Behavior. 13 (5): 627–650. doi:10.1023/a:1007868725551. S2CID   20773517.
  11. ↑ Richards, M. H. (2003). "Variable worker behaviour in the weakly eusocial sweat bee, Halictus sexcinctus Fabricius". Insectes Sociaux. 50 (4): 361–364. doi:10.1007/s00040-003-0691-3. S2CID   38716600.
  12. ↑ Greiner, Birgit; Ribi, Willi A.; Warrant, Eric J. (2004-04-03). "Retinal and optical adaptations for nocturnal vision in the halictid bee Megalopta genalis". Cell and Tissue Research. 316 (3): 377–390. doi:10.1007/s00441-004-0883-9. ISSN   0302-766X. PMID   15064946. S2CID   2155166.
  13. ↑ "A native ground nesting bee, Nomia melanderi, sustainably managed to pollinate alfalfa across an intensively agricultural landscape)". United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service.
  14. ↑ Kuehn, F. (2015). "Farming for native bees: Final report". SARE - Sustainable agriculture research & education.
  15. ↑ Adamson, N. L. (2011). An assessment of non-Apis bees as fruit and vegetable crop pollinators in southwest Virginia (PDF) (PhD). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
  16. ↑ "Halictid Bees". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  17. ↑ "StackPath". www.gardeningknowhow.com. Retrieved 2021-12-07.
  18. ↑ "No Need To Sweat Non-Aggressive Sweat Bees Or Lookalike Hover Flies". Forest Preserve District of Will County. Retrieved 2021-12-07.
  19. ↑ Engel, M.S.; Archibald, S.B. (2003). "An Early Eocene bee (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) from Quilchena, British Columbia". The Canadian Entomologist. 135 (1): 63–69. doi:10.4039/n02-030. hdl: 1808/16473 . S2CID   54053341.
  20. ↑ Engel, M.S. (1995). "Neocorynura electra, a New Fossil Bee Species from Dominican Amber (Hymenoptera:Halictidae)". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 103 (3): 317–323. JSTOR   25010174.
  21. ↑ Engel, M.S. (2000). "Classification of the bee tribe Augochlorini (Hymenoptera, Halictidae)" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 250: 1. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2000)250<0001:COTBTA>2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/1598. S2CID   85810077.
  22. ↑ Patiny, S.; et al. (2008). "Phylogenetic relationships and host-plant evolution within the basal clade of Halictidae (Hymenoptera, Apoidea)". Cladistics. 24 (3): 255–269. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2007.00182.x . S2CID   23828602.
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