Bethylidae

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Bethylidae
Temporal range: Barremian–Recent
Bethylidae indet. (Bethylidae), Elst (Gld), the Netherlands - 2.jpg
Sierola gilbertae AMNZ84662 side.jpg
Sierola gilbertae
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Chrysidoidea
Family: Bethylidae
Förster, 1856
Subgroups

See text

The Bethylidae are a family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea. As a family, their biology ranges between parasitoid wasps and hunting wasps.

Contents

Overview

Like most of the Chrysidoidea, the Bethylidae are stinging Hymenoptera and most are parasitoids. Some of them, however, have developed their parasitoidal biology along predatory lines and they sting and malaxate their victims into paralysis. Then they hide the prey and lay their eggs on them. [1]

Sierola gilbertae dorsal Sierola gilbertae AMNZ84662 Dorsal.jpg
Sierola gilbertae dorsal

According to Azevedo et al. (2018) eight subfamilies of the Bethylidae are recognized: [2] [3]

Biology

Morphology

Bethylids are known as flat wasps for their generally compressed and flattened appearance, a trait which is especially pronounced in females and may aid in nesting. Females of most species share a similar flattened, elongated appearance with a roughly oblong head and forward-set compound eyes. Adult females may be winged or apterous, a trait which can vary between species and even between females within the same species. [1] Males are always winged. Like females, males of all species look similar, but they are less flattened and have smaller heads. Females are larger than males of the same species. Most adult bethylids are two to five millimeters in length, though some species can grow to over 10 millimeters. [4] Because of their small size and similar appearances, identifying bethylids to species is difficult without a microscope and expert knowledge.

Feeding and Reproduction

Bethylid wasps prey on the larvae of beetles and lepidopterans. As basal aculeates, they show feeding habits similar to both parasitoid and hunting wasps. Females crawl onto prey and sting several times to paralyze it, first targeting the nerves controlling the legs and mandibles and then targeting nerves controlling internal organs, before chewing to further injure the suboesophageal ganglion which controls prey mouth functions. Most species of bethylid then drag their prey to a crevice or hole; some species are known to carry prey on their backs. In most cases, prey is entirely and permanently paralyzed by the attack, but some species only temporarily paralyze their prey. [1]

Most adult female bethylids must feed on their prey to nourish themselves, a process which may take several days, before depositing eggs. In many cases, females attack and feed on more prey than they eventually parasitize. Females may lay several dozen to over 200 eggs on each prey item, but usually not more than 150. [1] Some species practice maternal care in which adult females guard and clean their young. The time devoted to this care ranges by species from a few days after eggs are laid to the entirety of the larva's development. [1]

Defense

As aculeate wasps, each adult female bethylid has a stinger used to inject venom. Although predominantly used for attacking prey, they may also sting defensively against threats both their size and substantially larger. Bethylids can have surprisingly painful stings for their small size. [4] Stings typically result in a raised, burning, and/or itchy rash which may persist for several days. [5] No bethylid stings are known to cause medically significant symptoms in healthy adult humans. However, symptoms can be more severe in the case of allergies to compounds in the venom and may require medical attention. Infestations of bethylid wasps may occur in buildings infested by their prey, often moths and beetles which feed on grain or wood. Home bethylid infestations are associated with most reported sting cases as the wasps frequently become trapped against the body inside clothing or on furniture which can result in multiple stings. [5]

Although poorly documented, study has shown that males and females of at least five species in the subfamily Empyrinae produce skatole, a volatile organic compound with a powerful fecal odor. [6] [7] [8] This compound is likely released from glands on the mandibles when the wasp is stressed. [8] The release of skatole and other volatile compounds by bethylids is associated with agonistic behavior and is more frequently done by losers of fights over resources when attempting to leave the area, suggesting it may act as a defense for retreat after such competitions between bethylids. [8] [9] However, species that release skatole may also use it to deter larger predators.

Genera

According to Azevedo et al. (2018) [3] there are 96 genera belonging to the family Bethylidae. Some are listed here:

Bethylidae 2019 08 21 13 41 03 8753.jpg
Bethylidae 2019 08 21 13 42 21 8760.jpg

Data sources: i = ITIS, [11] c = Catalogue of Life, [12] g = GBIF, [13] b = Bugguide.net [14]

Bethylidae indet. (Bethylidae), Elst (Gld), the Netherlands.jpg

Evolution

The oldest known records of the group are from the Barremian aged Lebanese amber. [15] [16]

Sclerodermus Sclerodermus P1010383a.jpg
Sclerodermus

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 "Bethylidae". faculty.ucr.edu. Retrieved 2025-03-05.
  2. Alencar, I.D.; Azevedo, C.O. (2013). "Reclassification of Epyrini (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae): a tribal approach with commentary on their genera". Systematic Entomology. 38 (1): 45–80. Bibcode:2013SysEn..38...45A. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2012.00648.x. S2CID   84529518.
    Azevedo, C.O.; Azar, D. (2012). "A new fossil subfamily of Bethylidae (Hymenoptera) from the Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber and its phylogenetic position". Zoologia (Curitiba). 29 (3): 210–8. doi: 10.1590/S1984-46702012000300004 .
  3. 1 2 Azevedo, Celso O.; Alencar, Isabel D.C.C.; Ramos, Magno S.; Barbosa, Diego N.; Colombo, Wesley D.; Vargas, Juan M. R.; Lim, Jongok (2018-10-01). "Global guide of the flat wasps (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae)". Zootaxa. 4489 (1). doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4489.1.1. ISSN   1175-5334.
  4. 1 2 "Family Bethylidae - Flat Wasps". bugguide.net. Retrieved 2025-03-05.
  5. 1 2 Papini, Roberto Amerigo (2014-03-31). "A case of stings in humans caused by Sclerodermus sp. in Italy". Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases. 20 (1): 11. doi: 10.1186/1678-9199-20-11 . ISSN   1678-9199. PMC   3973378 . PMID   24685279.
  6. Kuwahara, Yasumasa (1984-09-01). "Identification of Skatole from a Bethylid Wasp, Cephalonomia gallicola (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera; Bethylidae)". Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. 48 (9): 2371–2372. doi:10.1080/00021369.1984.10866503. ISSN   0002-1369.
  7. Gómez, Jaime; Barrera, Juan F.; Rojas, Julio C.; Macias-Samano, Jorge; Liedo, Jose P.; Cruz-Lopez, Leopoldo; Badii, Mohammad H. (June 2005). "Volatile Compounds Released by Disturbed Females of Cephalonomia Stephanoderis (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae): A Parasitoid of the Coffee Berry Borer Hypothenemus Hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)". Florida Entomologist. 88 (2): 180–187. doi:10.1653/0015-4040(2005)088[0180:VCRBDF]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0015-4040.
  8. 1 2 3 GOUBAULT, MARLÈNE; BATCHELOR, TIM P.; ROMANI, ROBERTO; LINFORTH, ROBERT S. T.; FRITZSCHE, MATTHIAS; FRANCKE, WITTKO; HARDY, IAN C. W. (2008-08-01). "Volatile chemical release by bethylid wasps: identity, phylogeny, anatomy and behaviour". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 94 (4): 837–852. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01022.x. ISSN   0024-4066.
  9. Goubault, Marlène; Batchelor, Tim P; Linforth, Robert S.T; Taylor, Andrew J; Hardy, Ian C.W (2006-08-08). "Volatile emission by contest losers revealed by real-time chemical analysis". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1603): 2853–2859. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3655. PMC   1664635 . PMID   17015315.
  10. The London and Edinburgh philosophical magazine and journal of science. 1832.
  11. "Bethylidae Report". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2018-05-06.
  12. "Browse Bethylidae". Catalogue of Life. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018. Retrieved 2018-05-06.
  13. "Bethylidae". GBIF. Retrieved 2018-05-06.
  14. "Bethylidae Family Information". BugGuide.net. Retrieved 2018-05-06.
  15. M. S. Engel, J. Ortega-Blanco, and C. O. Ozevedo. 2016. A new bethylid wasp in Lebanese Early Cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: Chrysidoidea), with comments on other Mesozoic taxa. American Museum Novitates3855:1-14
  16. Azevedo, Celso O.; Azar, Dany (June 2012). "A new fossil subfamily of Bethylidae (Hymenoptera) from the Early Cretaceous Lebanese amber and its phylogenetic position". Zoologia (Curitiba). 29 (3): 210–218. doi: 10.1590/s1984-46702012000300004 . ISSN   1984-4689.