Azaras's capuchin or hooded capuchin (Sapajus cay) is a species of robust capuchin. It occurs in eastern Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia, northern Argentina, and Brazil, at Mato Grosso do Sul and Mato Grosso states, in Pantanal. Its habitat consists of subtropical, humid, semi-deciduous, gallery forests and forested regions of the Pantanals. Formerly, it was considered a subspecies of black-striped capuchin, according to Groves (2005) with the name Cebus libidinosus paraguayanus, but Silva Jr. (2001) considered it a separated species. They are considered as frugivores-insectivores which means that their diet mainly consists of a variety of fruits, seeds, arthropods, frogs, small mammals, etc.[1][2]
Cebus and Sapajus have been widely recognized as subgenera–or groups–of the capuchin monkey’s subfamily Cebinae. There is data hinting towards an estimated separation time between these two subgenera of about 6.2 million years.[4] Evidence indicates that during the Miocene, these two groups diverged from each other due to the emergence of the Amazon river; Cebus (gracile capuchin) expanded northwards towards the Amazon rainforest, and Sapajus (robust capuchin) expanded southwards towards the Atlantic forest.[4] However, during the Pleistocene, Sapajus expanded northwards once again towards the Amazon, becoming sympatric with Cebus. Nowadays, supported by ample evidence, it is accepted that Sapajus and Cebus are two different groups, and even considered two different genera.[5] Silva JS’s morphometric analysis categorized Sapajus species into three groups based on their geographical location; the Amazonian species, the species from central South America (south of the Cerrado and north of the Rio Doce), and the species of the Atlantic forest (south of the Rio Doce). Sapajuscay belongs to the second group.[1]
Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Sapajuscay was the product of the second divergence event (following Sapajus nigritus robustus) that occurred in the Atlantic forest group before the Sapajus expansion towards the Amazon during the Pleistocene.[5] However, the true current distribution of the Sapajuscay is a matter of debate between leading parties, and it is mainly due to the phenotypic characteristics of populations that live in different geographical locations.[6]
Characteristics
Azara’s capuchin monkeys are considered as one of the tufted capuchins, but the tuft will fully develop only after the individual reaches adulthood. Sexual maturity is estimated to be reached at the age of 4–5 years old for females, and around 8 years old for males. In captivity, individuals can live up to 50 years, while in the wild the average is around 30 years.[7] This species of capuchin monkey presents slight sexual dimorphism; the male being larger in body size.[8] The female weighs between 1.4–3.4kg (3.1–7.5lb), whereas the male can weigh between 1.3–4.8kg (2.9–10.6lb).[9] The average male individual averages a height of 0.8m from nose to tail, while the female is slightly shorter. They have long feet and tails; the tails can be as long as half their body height.[10] Another distinction from the rest of the Sapajus species–according to Silva–is that the S. cay (Sapajus cay) has significantly smaller cranium size, even at adulthood.
Azara's capuchin monkey (Sapajus cay) eating.
They normally present medium-length fur with several different tones of brown throughout the body. Their limbs are usually a darker colour, as well as their tuft. Compared to the rest of the Sapajus species, S. cay exhibits a dark stripe of hair on the front of their ears, which resembles sideburns.[1] There has been major disagreements on the true taxonomic nature of these species because of their high morphological variability. S. cay individuals exhibit inter and intra-population polymorphism, they also exhibit sexual dimorphism and significant changes in their morphology at different ages.[1]
Ecology and behaviour
They are diurnal opportunistic omnivores, who live in social communities and travel throughout their territory looking for food.[11] Research indicates that these capuchins spend most of their time resting, travelling and foraging. While there were significant differences in the behaviours of males and females, there were not many significant differences in their diet.
Diet
Males were observed to spend more time on the ground or near it, resting and surveying the area. Females, on the other hand, spend significantly more time browsing and eating on the canopy of the sleeping trees. These differences in behaviours is attributed to the only difference in their diet. Males tend to eat larger objects than females (prey or plant matter); noticeably, only large males have been seen eating small vertebrates. This difference in the size of the meal is thought to be the reason why males spend more time resting (digesting), while the females spend more time foraging in order to compensate for the smaller size of their meals. Research showed that regardless of the sex, the largest part of their diet are fruits, followed by seeds; lastly, plant parts and invertebrates constituted the rest of their diet.[8] It is a host of the acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Pachysentis rugosus.[12]
Social dynamics
The size of groups can vary greatly, some can be less than a dozen individuals, whereas some groups have been recorded to have up to 44 individuals.[8] Their groups consist of a multi-male/multi-female dynamic, with an alpha male who is usually the largest and most ferocious. This alpha male typically serves as a protective figure, who also controls the access to food, and has priority to mate with the females.[11] These groups normally travel continuously throughout their home range, without leaving its boundaries. Only under extreme conditions will they choose to explore new territories. Research indicates that these species have the ability to learn and retain information for long periods of time, which is a key quality for their high adaptability. Long-term memory serves as a tool in order to recognize patterns for profitable and dangerous phenomena. Tujage et al. (2015) were able to show that individuals can deduce that if one fruit tree is producing fruit, then all the others of the same species must be producing as well, so the individuals would actively look for these.[7]
Other behaviours
Many behaviours similar to other capuchin species have been observed in some communities, but their exact reasons have not been concretely proven. Some individuals have been seen to rub the leaves of certain citrus trees on their fur, while exhibiting other protective behaviours. It is thought that this behaviour is triggered when threats are near, and the strong smell of the leaves play a part.[13]
Tool use has also been documented in S. cay individuals. Even though the consumption of hard shelled fruits and seeds is not preferred, it forms part of their diet. These capuchins hold the object with both hands, and smash it against tree branches that act as an anvil. High ranking adults are especially successful at this, while low ranking adults will sometimes wait for the leftovers of the processed food.[14]
Distribution and habitat
The habitat of the capuchin’s monkey species, respectively Cebus and Sapajus, is located in the tropical and subtropical forests of South and Central America. Though they occupy a wide range of territory, their population currently only reside on nearly 200 hectares (around 500 acres).[9] Their habitat is hot and humid all year round, with high quantity of precipitation and vegetation. They have a high level of behavioural as well as ecological flexibility, allowing them to reside in a wide range of habitats, including bush lands and savannas.[5] In fact, the Sapajus cay species habitat is distributed among countries such as northern Argentina, south-eastern Bolivia, and eastern Paraguay.
They also inhabit Brazil, where they are located southwest of the Amazon, approximately south to the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, as well as southeast of Goiás state.[11] Some populations of Sapajus Cay monkeys reside in northern Argentina, in the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Formosa and Chaco.[2] The Sapajus Cay is also the only representative of its genus established in Paraguay, where they are located in the humid semi deciduous Alto Parana Atlantic Forest.[9][14]
Endangerment and threats
Deforestation of the Amazon rain forest in Brazil. A big threat for Sapajus cay's habitats.Capuchin monkey as a pet (not an Azara's capuchin).
To this day, it is reported that there are no major threats for the Sapajus cay species in Paraguay. Indigenous peoples hunt this species for food, but their population is low, hence not creating a significant threat. The only threat in Paraguay is forest loss due to anthropogenic causes or natural disasters. It is estimated that Sapajus cay monkeys are the most common kept primate pet in Paraguay, hence there is awareness of its threats, assisting conservation efforts.[2]
However in Brazil, the Sapajus cay species are listed as highly vulnerable.[8] In fact, there are many extreme threats to the species survival rate. These include fire, rural settlements, agriculture, livestock keeping, urban sprawl, vulnerability to epidemics, deforestation, increasing road and energy infrastructure, habitat isolation, habitat reduction, pollution, hunting and life capture for pet trade.[2] High population-density in areas South and Central America as well as legal and illegal selective logging, is destroying the Sapajus cay wildlife, ruining the fragment of forests they inhabit.[14]
In addition, their populations inhabiting what is left of the Argentinian forest are subject to serious threats as a consequence of habitat modification and conversion for agriculture production, as well as poaching (illegal hunting). Industrialization has altered the natural environment, negatively affecting Argentina’s ecosystems. This can potentially result in inter-species pathogenic exchange, therefore increasing the death rate of the Sapajus Cay.[15]
Conservation
Calilegua National Park - View of San Lorenzo Rio. One of the Sapajus cay conservation zones in Argentina.
In Brazil, the Azara’s capuchin monkey has not been well studied, resulting in poor conservation actions due to lack of ecological knowledge of this species. The Sapajus cay species is in danger, with threat of extinction. Drastic regional conservation actions are required for their survival.[8]
In Brazil, they are protected in Pantanal Matogrossense National Park, Serra da Bodoquena National Park (77,021 ha), Rio Negro State Park (7,000 ha), Segredo Stream State Park (189 ha), SESC Pantanal Private Reserve (RPPN) (106,31 ha), Fazenda Acurizal Private Reserve (13,665 ha), Fazenda Penha Private Reserve (RPPN) (13,409 ha), Fazenda Boqueirão Private Reserve (RPPN) (173,60 ha), Fazenda Singapura Private Reserve (RPPN) (456 ha), the Fazenda América Private Reserve (RPPN) (401 ha), Fazenda Trevo Private Reserve (RPPN) (27,75 ha), the Fazenda Floresta Negra Private reserve (RPPN) (971,06 ha), Fazenda Nova Querência Private Reserve (50 ha in 8,500 ha of Gallery Forest) and the Fazenda São Marcos (600 ha).[2]
Notes
1 2 3 4 5 Lynch Alfaro, J.W.; Silva, J.S. & Rylands, A.B. (2012). "How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of Sapajus and Cebus". American Journal of Primatology. 74 (4): 1–14. doi:10.1002/ajp.22007. PMID22328205. S2CID18840598.
1 2 Alfaro, J. W. L.; Boubli, J. P.; Olson, L. E.; Di Fiore, A.; Wilson, B.; Gutiérrez-Espeleta, Gustavo A; Chiou, K. L.; Schulte, M.; Neitzel, S.; Ross, V.; Schwochow, D.; Nguyen, M. T. T.; Farias, I.; Janson, C. H.; Alfaro, M. E. (2011). "Explosive pleistocene range expansion leads to widespread amazonian sympatry between robust and gracile capuchin monkeys". Journal of Biogeography. 39 (2): 272–288. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02609.x. S2CID13791283.
1 2 3 Martins, A. M. G.; Amorim, N.; Carneiro, J. C.; de Mello Affonso, P. R. A.; Sampaio, I.; Schneider, H. (2015). "Alu elements and the phylogeny of capuchin (Cebus and Sapajus) monkeys". American Journal of Primatology. 77 (4): 368–375. doi:10.1002/ajp.22352. PMID25387886. S2CID10737749.
1 2 3 4 5 Fernandes, Júnior Oscar; Porfirio, G. E. de O.; Santos, F. M.; Gimenes Nantes, W. A.; Oliveira de Assis, W.; Braziliano de Andrade, G.; Herrera, H. M.; José, Rímoli (2020). "Behavioral activities and diet of Azaras's capuchin monkey, Sapajus cay (illiger, 1815), in a forest remnant of the Brazilian cerrado". Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment. 55 (2): 149–154. doi:10.1080/01650521.2019.1708228. S2CID214071862.
1 2 3 Nieves, Mariela; Peker, Silvana; Tujague, María Paula; Kowalewski, Martin; Pavé, Romina; Agostini, Ilaria; Mayor, Ana Sofía; Albanesi, Sebastián; de Bustos, Soledad; Jayat, J. Pablo; Maras, Gustavo A.; Perovic, Pablo G.; Reppucci, Juan I.; Apellaniz, Melisa (2019). "Sapajus cay". SAyDS–SAREM (eds.) Categorization of Argentine mammals according to their risk of extinction. Red list of mammals of Argentina.
1 2 3 Smith, R. L. (2017). "Preliminary Observations of Complex Object Manipulation in a Wild Population of Sapajus cay Illiger 1815 (Primates: Cebidae) in a Fragment of Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest, Rancho Laguna Blanca, Eastern Paraguay". Acta Ethologica. 20 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1007/s10211-016-0244-1. S2CID28496636.
↑ Sanchez-Fernandez, C.; Bolatti, E. M.; Culassom, A. C. A.; Chouhy, D.; Kowalewski, M. M.; Stella, E. J.; Schurr, T. G.; Rinas, M. A.; Liotta, D. J.; Campos, R. H.; Giri, A. A.; Badano, I. (2022). "Identification and Evolutionary Analysis of Papillomavirus sequences in New World Monkeys (Genera Sapajus and Alouatta) from Argentina". Archives of Virology. 167 (20220330): 1257–1268. doi:10.1007/s00705-022-05420-y. PMID35353206. S2CID247792293.
The Cebidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America.
The Panamanian white-faced capuchin, also known as the Panamanian white-headed capuchin or Central American white-faced capuchin, is a medium-sized New World monkey of the family Cebidae, subfamily Cebinae. Native to the forests of Central America, the white-faced capuchin is important to rainforest ecology for its role in dispersing seeds and pollen.
The golden-bellied capuchin, also known as the yellow-breasted or buff-headed capuchin, is a species of New World or neotropical monkey. It lives mainly in trees and are omnivorous, eating a wide variety of both plant and animals as food. Golden-bellied capuchin normal home range is in the Atlantic forest of Brazil and it is critically endangered due to forest fragmentation and habitat loss mainly due to agriculture, there are currently efforts to protect them by the local government.
The capuchin monkeys are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are readily identified as the "organ grinder" monkey, and have been used in many movies and television shows. The range of capuchin monkeys includes some tropical forests in Central America and South America as far south as northern Argentina. In Central America, where they are called white-faced monkeys ("carablanca"), they usually occupy the wet lowland forests on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica and Panama and deciduous dry forest on the Pacific coast.
The tufted capuchin, also known as brown capuchin, black-capped capuchin, or pin monkey, is a New World primate from South America and the Caribbean islands of Trinidad and Margarita. As traditionally defined, it is one of the most widespread primates in the Neotropics, but it has recently been recommended considering the black-striped, black and golden-bellied capuchins as separate species in a new genus, thereby effectively limiting the tufted capuchin to the Amazon basin and nearby regions. However, the large-headed capuchin (S. a. macrocephalus), previously defined as a distinct species, has been reclassified as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin, expanding its range east to Peru and Ecuador and south to Bolivia.
The Kaapori capuchin, also known as the Ka'apor capuchin, is a species of frugivorous, gracile capuchin endemic to the Brazilian Amazon. Their geographical home range is relatively small and is within the most densely populated region of the Amazon. With the strong human presence nearby,C. kaapori has had to deal with very large amounts of disturbances to their habitat and is one of the most endangered of the neotropical primates.
The wedge-capped capuchin or Guianan weeper capuchin is a capuchin monkey from South America. It is found in northern Brazil, Guyana and Venezuela. Cebus olivaceus is known to dwell in tall, primary forest and travel over long distances during the day.
The black capuchin, also known as the black-horned capuchin, is a capuchin monkey from the Atlantic Forest in south-eastern Brazil and far north-eastern Argentina. Historically, it was included as a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.
The black-striped capuchin, also known as the bearded capuchin, is a New World monkey in the family Cebidae. They can be found in northern and central Brazil. These capuchins mostly live in dry forests, and savannah landscapes between the Rio Araguaia and the Rio Grande. Known for its tool use, the black-stiped capuchin has been shown to use tools in a wide variety of situations, ranging from using rocks for nut cracking to using sticks for digging. They were, until recently, considered a subspecies of the tufted capuchin, but because of more research and insights, they are considered their own species by many.
Azara's night monkey, also known as the southern night monkey, is a night monkey species from South America. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and Paraguay. The species is monogamous, with the males providing a large amount of parental care. It is named after Spanish naturalist Félix de Azara. Although primarily nocturnal, some populations of Azara's night monkey are unique among night monkeys in being active both day and night. The species is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
The large-headed capuchin is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin monkey from South America. It is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. It was formerly thought to be its own species, but studies have found it to be a subspecies of the tufted capuchin.
The marsh deer is the largest deer species from South America.
The blond capuchin is a species of capuchin monkey endemic to northeastern Brazil. This endangered species was rediscovered in 2006. It can live in exceptionally large groups of over 150 individuals, and like other capuchin species, exhibits a complex and high level of sociality. It is threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, primarily sugarcane fields. In many cases this has caused sugarcane to make up a large portion of their diet, which would otherwise consist of mostly fruit and small animals. The blond capuchin is known to inhabit both the Atlantic forest and Caatinga biomes, although the habitation of the Caatinga may be a recent choice caused by human encroachment into its former habitats. Like other primate species, the blond capuchin is also threatened by poaching and capture for the illegal pet trade.
The Ecuadorian capuchin, or Ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey of the family Cebidae. It was formerly classified as a subspecies of the white-fronted capuchin . Mittermeier and Rylands elevated it to a separate species in 2013. The primary physical distinction between C. albifrons and C. aequatorialis is their coloration. Due to low density and distribution researchers have not been able to make a confident molecular genetic assessment of the C. aequatorialis population, but assign it species status based on geographical isolation, morphological characteristics, and the phylogenetic species concept. The location range of the Ecuadorian Capuchin is from Western lowland Ecuador to North West Peru. The conservation status of the Ecuadorian Capuchin was originally near threatened but was revised in 2008 by the IUCN to critically endangered due to the population's rapid decline. Anthropogenic factors such as habitat fragmentation from rapid deforestation, creation of agricultural lands, and persecution from farmers are to blame for the species' critically endangered status.
Robust capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Sapajus. Formerly, all capuchin monkeys were placed in the genus Cebus. Sapajus was erected in 2012 by Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. to differentiate the robust (tufted) capuchin monkeys from the gracile capuchin monkeys, which remain in Cebus.
Gracile capuchin monkeys are capuchin monkeys in the genus Cebus. At one time all capuchin monkeys were included within the genus Cebus. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al. proposed splitting the genus between the robust capuchin monkeys, such as the tufted capuchin, and the gracile capuchins. The gracile capuchins retain the genus name Cebus, while the robust species have been transferred to Sapajus.
The crested capuchin or robust tufted capuchin is a species of robust capuchin monkey. It is endemic to Brazil. It was formerly considered a subspecies of the black capuchin but is now considered by some to be a separate species.
Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey. It is found in Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil, and potentially the island of Trinidad.
The shock-headed capuchin is a species of gracile capuchin monkey from Bolivia and Peru. It was previously classified as a subspecies of the Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, but in 2013 Mittermeier and Rylands elevated it to a separate species, following genetic studies by Boubli et al. in 2012 and Lynch Alfaro et al. in 2010.
The Margarita Island capuchin, also known as the tufted Margarita Island capuchin or mono de margarita is a subspecies of the tufted capuchin that only resides in the Caribbean Sea on Margarita Island, Venezuela.
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