Body shape

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1972 line art depiction of nude man and woman from the Pioneer plaques. Human.svg
1972 line art depiction of nude man and woman from the Pioneer plaques.

Human body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. [1] Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of their life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see Human skeleton). [2]

Contents

Many aspects of body shape vary with gender and the female body shape especially has a complicated cultural history. The science of measuring and assessing body shape is called anthropometry.

Physiology

During puberty, differentiation of the male and female body occurs for the purpose of reproduction. In adult humans, muscle mass may change due to exercise, and fat distribution may change due to hormone fluctuations. Inherited genes play a large part in the development of body shape.

Facial features

Nefertiti berlin.jpg
Portrait head of Julius Caesar (1st cent. A.D.) at the Archaeological Museum of Corinth on 10 January 2020.jpg
Classical female and male faces

Due to the action of testosterone, males may develop these facial-bone features during puberty:

Because females have around 1/15 (6.67%) the amount of testosterone of a male, [6] the testosterone-dependent features do not develop to the same extent, and female faces are generally more similar to those of pre-pubertal children.

Skeletal structure

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Comparison between a male (left) and a female pelvis (right). Females generally have wider hips relative to males in the same population. (Images not to scale.)

Skeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much after maturity. Males are, on average, taller, but body shape may be analyzed after normalizing with respect to height. The length of each bone is constant, but the joint angle will change as the bone moves. [7] The dynamics of biomechanical movement will be different depending on the pelvic morphology for the same principle. The fascia anatomy of the sides of the sacral diamond area, which regulates its shape and movement, corresponds to the fascial thickenings that are part of the sacral complex of the thoracambular fascia, which surrounds the sacroiliac joints both posterioly and, from the iliolumbar ligaments anteriorly. The biochemical properties of the bands would have repercussions from the inside to the outside and vice-versa. [8] The shape of the posterior muscular and adipose tissues seems to correspond with the general pelvic morphology. The classification is as follows the gynecoid pelvis corresponds to a round buttocks shape, the platypelloid pelvis to a triangle shape, the anthropoid pelvis to a square shape and the android pelvis to a trapezoidal gluteus region. [8] The trapezoidal shape is what gives steotopygia its specific shape and appearance if anything steotopygia is a trapezoidal figure from front, sideways and the back. Android pelvis is the largest is size, density and mass. The gynecoid is the widest relative to its size. The anthropoid has the widest foreman.

Female traits

Widening of the hip bones occurs as part of the female pubertal process, [9] and estrogens (the predominant sex hormones in females) cause a widening of the pelvis as a part of sexual differentiation. Hence females generally have wider hips, permitting childbirth. Because the female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger, the head of the fetus may pass during childbirth. [10] The sacrum in females is shorter and wider, and also directed more toward the rear (see image). [11] This sometimes affects their walking style, resulting in hip sway. [12] The upper limb in females have an outward angulation (carrying angle) at elbow level to accommodate the wider pelvis. After puberty, hips are generally wider than shoulders. However, not all females adhere to this stereotypical pattern of secondary sex characteristics. [13] Males and females generally have the same hormones, but blood concentrations and site sensitivity differs between males and females. Males produce primarily testosterone with small amounts of estrogen and progesterone, while women produce primarily estrogen and progesterone and small amounts of testosterone. [14]

Male traits

An adult man with a "V-shaped body"; pronounced shoulder width and expanded chest, both traits typically associated with male physique Half-naked male.jpg
An adult man with a "V-shaped body"; pronounced shoulder width and expanded chest, both traits typically associated with male physique

Widening of the shoulders occurs as part of the male pubertal process. [9] Expansion of the ribcage is caused by the effects of testosterone during puberty.[ citation needed ]

Fat distribution, muscles and tissues

The rear view of a naked adult man with a "V-shaped body". Male Musculature Study - photograph by Albert Londe, Paul Marie Louis Pierre Richer (MET, 2012.59) -Male Musculature Study- MET DP263572.jpg
The rear view of a naked adult man with a "V-shaped body". Male Musculature Study - photograph by Albert Londe, Paul Marie Louis Pierre Richer (MET, 2012.59)
The rear view of a naked adult woman with pronounced hip width and large buttocks, both typically associated with female physique Vintage photo nude woman 2.jpg
The rear view of a naked adult woman with pronounced hip width and large buttocks, both typically associated with female physique

Body shape is affected by body fat distribution, which is correlated to current levels of sex hormones. [1] Unlike bone structure, muscles and fat distribution may change from time to time, depending on food habits, exercises and hormone levels.

Fat distribution

Estrogen causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in females. [15] When females reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists. [16] Later fat is stored in the belly, similar to males. [17] Thus females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio compared to males. [18]

Estrogen increases fat storage in the body, which results in more fat stored in the female body. [19] Body fat percentage guidelines are higher for females, [20] as this may serve as an energy reserve for pregnancy. [21] Males generally deposit fat around waists and abdomens (producing an "apple shape").[ citation needed ]

Transgender men and those begin masculinizing hormone therapy see body fat redistributed within 3–6 months. Within 5 years, testosterone may cause gynoid fat to be significantly reduced. [22] [23] Inversely, transgender women, or those who begin feminizing hormone therapy, experience the formation of gynoid fat along with natural breast development. [23]

Muscles

Testosterone helps build and maintain muscles through exercise. On average, men have around 5-20 times more testosterone than women and naturally and biologically males gain more muscle mass and size than women. [24] However, women can also build muscle mass by increasing the testosterone level naturally. [25] Prominent muscles of the body include the latissimus dorsi and trapezius in the back, pectoral muscles and rectus abdominis (abdomen) in the chest and stomach respectively, as well as biceps and triceps in the arms and gluteus maximus, quadriceps and hamstrings in the thighs. [26]

Breasts

Females have breasts due to functional mammary glands, which develop in puberty from the influence of various hormones such as thyroxine, cortisol, progesterone, estrogen, insulin, prolactin, and human growth hormone. [27] Mammary glands do not contain muscle tissue. The shape of female breasts is affected by age, genetic factors, and body weight. Women's breasts tend to grow larger after menopause, due to increase in fatty deposits caused by decreasing levels of estrogen. The loss of elasticity from connective tissue associated with menopause also causes sagging. [28]

Weight

Being overweight or underweight affects the human body's shape as well as posture and walking style.[ citation needed ] This is measured using Body Mass Index (BMI). Depending on the BMI, a body may be referred to as underweight, normal, overweight, or obese. A person with a BMI below 18.5 is classed as underweight, between 18.5 and 24.9 is ideal, above 24.9 is overweight and a BMI of 30 or higher is defined as obese. [29]

Body posture and gait

Body shape has effects on body posture [30] and gait, and has a major role in physical attraction. This is because a body's shape implies an individual's hormone levels during puberty, which implies fertility, and it also indicates current levels of sex hormones. [1] A pleasing shape also implies good health and fitness of the body. Posture also affects body shape as different postures significantly alter body measurements, which thus can alter a body's shape. [30] [31]

Impact on health

According to the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, those people with a larger waist (apple shaped) have higher health risks than those who carry excess weight on the hips and thighs (pear shaped). People with apple shaped bodies who carry excess weight are at greater risk of high blood pressure, Type 2 diabetes and high cholesterol. [32] The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence advises that a person's waist-to-height ratio (WtHR) should not exceed 0.5, and that this rule applies to everyone from the age of five and is irrespective of gender, ethnicity or BMI. [33]

Fitness and exercise

Different forms of exercises are practiced for the fitness of the body and also for health. It is a common belief that targeted exercise reduces fat in specific parts of the body —for example, that exercising muscles around the belly reduces fat in the belly. This, however, is now proven to be a misconception; these exercises may change body shape by improving muscle tone but any fat reduction is not specific to the locale. Spot reduction exercises are not useful unless you plan proper exercise regime to lose overall calories. But exercising reduces fat throughout the body, and where fat is stored depends on hormones. Liposuction is surgery commonly used in developed societies to remove fat from the body.

Social and cultural ideals

Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399 n4.jpg
Venus de Milo at the Louvre has been described as a "classical vision of beauty". [34] [35] [36] [a]
'David' by Michelangelo JBU05.JPG
Michelangelo's David is considered a symbol of young male beauty and strength

The general body shapes of female and male bodies both have significant social and cultural symbolism. Physical attractiveness is closely associated with traits that are considered typical of either sex. [38] The body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio, and especially waist-to-chest ratio in men have been shown in studies to rank as overall more desirable to women. To be deemed to have an "athletic built"/build [39] is usually a reference to wide shoulders, a muscular upper body and well-developed upper-arm muscles which are all traits closely associated with masculinity, similarly to other specifics of the male sex, like beards. These traits are seen more sexually attractive to women and also associated with higher intelligence, good leadership qualities and better health. [40]

Terminology

Classifications of female body sizes are mainly based on the circumference of the bust–waist–hip (BWH), as in 90-60-90 (centimeters) or 36–24–36 (inches) respectively. In this case, the waist–hip ratio is 60/90 or 24/36 = 0.67. Many terms or classifications are used to describe body shape types:

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ However, one expert suggested that her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty". [37]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast</span> Region of the torso of a primate that in females serves as a mammary gland

The breasts are two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso among humans and other primates. Both sexes develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. The relative size and development of the breasts is a major secondary sex distinction between females and males. There is also considerable variation in size between individuals. Female humans are the only mammals which permanently develop breasts at puberty; all other mammals develop their mammary tissue during the latter period of pregnancy; at puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause permanent breast growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen</span> Primary female sex hormone

Estrogen is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal activity: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Estradiol, an estrane, is the most potent and prevalent. Another estrogen called estetrol (E4) is produced only during pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary sex characteristic</span> Features that occur in an organism at sexual maturity

A secondary sex characteristic is a physical characteristic of an organism that is related to or derived from its sex, but not directly part of its reproductive system. In humans, these characteristics typically start to appear during puberty—and include enlarged breasts and widened hips of females, facial hair and Adam's apples on males, and pubic hair on both. In non-human animals, they can start to appear at sexual maturity—and include, for example, the manes of male lions, the bright facial and rump coloration of male mandrills, and horns in many goats and antelopes.

Feminizing Gender-affirming surgery for transgender women or transfeminine non-binary people describes a variety of surgical procedures that alter the body to provide physical traits more comfortable and affirming to an individual's gender identity and overall functioning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical attractiveness</span> Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry, sociocultural dependent attributes, and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lordosis behavior</span> Body posture in mammals for sexual receptivity

Lordosis behavior, also known as mammalian lordosis or presenting, is the naturally occurring body posture for sexual receptivity to copulation present in females of most mammals including rodents, elephants, cats, and humans. The primary characteristics of the behavior are a lowering of the forelimbs but with the rear limbs extended and hips raised, ventral arching of the spine and a raising, or sideward displacement, of the tail. During lordosis, the spine curves dorsoventrally so that its apex points towards the abdomen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in human physiology</span>

Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These differences are caused by the effects of the different sex chromosome complement in males and females, and differential exposure to gonadal sex hormones during development. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waist–hip ratio</span> Waist measurement divided by hip measurement

The waist–hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement. For example, a person with a 75 cm waist and 95 cm hips has WHR of about 0.79.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hourglass figure</span> Human female body shape

The hourglass figure is one of the four traditional female body shapes described by the fashion industry; the other shapes are the rectangle, inverted triangle, and spoon. The hourglass shape is defined by a woman's body measurements – the circumference of the bust, waist and hips. Hourglass body shapes have a wide bust, a narrow waist, and wide hips with a similar measurement to that of the bust. This body shape is named for its resemblance to that of an hourglass, where the upper and lower half are wide and roughly equal while the middle is narrow in circumference, making the overall shape wide-narrow-wide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen insensitivity syndrome</span> Medical condition

Estrogen insensitivity syndrome (EIS), or estrogen resistance, is a form of congenital estrogen deficiency or hypoestrogenism which is caused by a defective estrogen receptor (ER) – specifically, the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) – that results in an inability of estrogen to mediate its biological effects in the body. Congenital estrogen deficiency can alternatively be caused by a defect in aromatase, the enzyme responsible for the biosynthesis of estrogens, a condition which is referred to as aromatase deficiency and is similar in symptomatology to EIS.

Masculinizing hormone therapy, also known as transmasculine hormone therapy, is a form of hormone therapy and gender affirming therapy which is used to change the secondary sexual characteristics of transgender people from feminine to masculine. It is a common type of transgender hormone therapy, and is predominantly used to treat transgender men and other transmasculine individuals who were assigned female at birth. Some intersex people also receive this form of therapy, either starting in childhood to confirm the assigned sex or later if the assignment proves to be incorrect.

Feminizing hormone therapy, also known as transfeminine hormone therapy, is a form of gender-affirming care and a gender-affirming hormone therapy to change the secondary sex characteristics of transgender people from masculine to feminine. It is a common type of transgender hormone therapy and is used to treat transgender women and non-binary transfeminine individuals. Some, in particular intersex people, but also some non-transgender people, take this form of therapy according to their personal needs and preferences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual selection in humans</span> Evolutionary effects of sexual selection on humans

The concept of sexual selection was introduced by Charles Darwin as an element of his theory of natural selection. Sexual selection is a biological way one sex chooses a mate for the best reproductive success. Most compete with others of the same sex for the best mate to contribute their genome for future generations. This has shaped human evolution for many years, but reasons why humans choose their mates are not fully understood. Sexual selection is quite different in non-human animals than humans as they feel more of the evolutionary pressures to reproduce and can easily reject a mate. The role of sexual selection in human evolution has not been firmly established although neoteny has been cited as being caused by human sexual selection. It has been suggested that sexual selection played a part in the evolution of the anatomically modern human brain, i.e. the structures responsible for social intelligence underwent positive selection as a sexual ornamentation to be used in courtship rather than for survival itself, and that it has developed in ways outlined by Ronald Fisher in the Fisherian runaway model. Fisher also stated that the development of sexual selection was "more favourable" in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female body shape</span> Characteristic of human females

Female body shape or female figure is the cumulative product of a woman's bone structure along with the distribution of muscle and fat on the body.

Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a female, the testicles in a male. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when an adult body has been developed. Before puberty, the external sex organs, known as primary sexual characteristics, are sex characteristics that distinguish males and females. Puberty leads to sexual dimorphism through the development of the secondary sex characteristics, which further distinguish the sexes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Android fat distribution</span> Human adipose tissue around the trunk and upper body

Android fat distribution describes the distribution of human adipose tissue mainly around the trunk and upper body, in areas such as the abdomen, chest, shoulder and nape of the neck. This pattern may lead to an "triangle"-shaped body or central obesity, and is more common in males than in females. Thus, the android fat distribution of men is about 48.6%, which is 10.3% higher than that of premenopausal women. In other cases, an ovoid shape forms, which does not differentiate between men and women. Generally, during early adulthood, females tend to have a more peripheral fat distribution such that their fat is evenly distributed over their body. However, it has been found that as females age, bear children and approach menopause, this distribution shifts towards the android pattern of fat distribution, resulting in a 42.1% increase in android body fat distribution in postmenopausal women. This could potentially provide evolutionary advantages such as lowering a woman's center of gravity making her more stable when carrying offspring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural history of the buttocks</span> Human sexual psychology relating to the anatomical posterior

Cultural history of the buttocks has included various art forms as well as a sexualization of the buttocks which has occurred throughout history.

Mate preferences in humans refers to why one human chooses or chooses not to mate with another human and their reasoning why. Men and women have been observed having different criteria as what makes a good or ideal mate. A potential mate's socioeconomic status has also been seen important, especially in developing areas where social status is more emphasized.

Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (HH), also known as primary or peripheral/gonadal hypogonadism or primary gonadal failure, is a condition which is characterized by hypogonadism which is due to an impaired response of the gonads to the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and in turn a lack of sex steroid production. As compensation and the lack of negative feedback, gonadotropin levels are elevated. Individuals with HH have an intact and functioning hypothalamus and pituitary glands so they are still able to produce FSH and LH. HH may present as either congenital or acquired, but the majority of cases are of the former nature. HH can be treated with hormone replacement therapy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gynoid fat distribution</span> Female body fat around the hips, breasts and thighs

Gynoid fat is the body fat that forms around the lower body, specifically the hips, thighs and buttocks.

References

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