Chicano Liberation Front

Last updated

Chicano Liberation Front
LeadersUnknown
Dates of operation1970–1974
SizeUnknown
Part of Chicano Movement
OpponentsLocal law enforcement, capitalists

The Chicano Liberation Front (CLF) was an underground revolutionary group in California, United States, that committed dozens of bombings and arson attacks in the Los Angeles area in the early 1970s. [1] [2] The radical militant group publicly claimed responsibility for 28 bombings between March 1970 and July 1971 in a taped message sent to the Los Angeles Free Press . [3] Their targets were typically banks, schools and supermarkets. [3] They also claimed responsibility for a bomb at Los Angeles City Hall. [4] The Chicano Liberation Front was also more than likely responsible for explosions at a downtown federal building [5] [6] and at the Los Angeles Hall of Justice, [7] although those incidents remain officially unsolved.

Contents

No one has ever publicly identified themselves as being a member of the Chicano Liberation Front. [4] The closest law enforcement ever got to the CLF appears to have been a 19-year-old named Freddie De Larosa Plank, who was charged for an attempted arson at a high school, [8] and for firebombing a U.S. Army Reserve building. [9] The CLF claimed responsibility for the latter event in August 1971. [9] The 1970s leftist radical bombings were generally difficult crimes to solve, [10] and the CLF was apparently extremely cautious, close-knit, and ideologically sincere enough, [11] that they avoided the catastrophic collapses of other paramilitaries of the era. [12]

A 1975 Time magazine article reported that CLF was thought to have "at least 15 hardcore members." [13] One history of American terrorism said it was typical of "small groups of revolutionaries" like the Chicano Liberation Front to give themselves grandiose names to project strength, even when their actual membership count was likely closer to that of a squad than an army. [14] The CLF apparently had at least one female member, as a woman called in claims of responsibility for two bombings, and the voice on the 1971 recording sent to the Free Press was female. [9]

Part of the larger Chicano/Latino racial-progress action, the group apparently sought "removal of police and other 'outside exploiters' from East Los Angeles" [3] by use of revolutionary violence, in response to law-enforcement actions like the killing of the Sanchez cousins and the perceived suppression of Mexican-American political agitation (e.g., the August 29, 1970 LASD killing of reporter Ruben Salazar). [2] [15] The "sectarian Marxist" orientation of CLF opposed the relatively more genteel activism of the Chicano Moratorium. [16] The Chicano Liberation Front shared some ideological similarities with the Black power movement and American Indian Movement organizations of the same era, [17] namely their vocal resistance to police brutality in the United States and their opposition to capitalist exploitation of the poor. Their use of "revolutionary" violence also placed them within a class of chaotic leftist entities that included the Weather Underground, the Symbionese Liberation Army, the New World Liberation Front, the Emiliano Zapata Unit, and the George Jackson Brigade. Some of the later actions claimed by or attributed to the Chicano Liberation Front may have been the acts of hardened criminals (as was apparently the case with the assassination of William Cann), [18] the Symbionese Liberation Army, [19] the New World Liberation Front, [12] or mildly rebellious teenagers. [20] [21] The Chicano Movement, as a whole, was non-violent and modeled on the civil rights movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. [4] Chicano Liberation Front terrorism was said to be the "exception that proved the rule." [22]

History

The April 1971 bombing of Los Angeles City Hall was the first time the Chicano Liberation Front publicly claimed responsibility for a fire or explosion. (Herald Examiner, No. 00079286 via Haynes Foundation and TESSA Digital Collections, Los Angeles Public Library) TESSA Digital Collections of the Los Angeles Public Library 00079286 Herald Examiner HH b007 f2 i12 Bombing at City Hall 1971-04-02.jpg
The April 1971 bombing of Los Angeles City Hall was the first time the Chicano Liberation Front publicly claimed responsibility for a fire or explosion. ( Herald Examiner , No. 00079286 via Haynes Foundation and TESSA Digital Collections, Los Angeles Public Library)

The CLF of primary historic interest is the group, active in the Los Angeles area, "formed in 1970 and vanished by 1971." [16] This was a period that was roughly bookended by the Chicano Moratorium anti-war protests of 1970 and the first anniversary of the death of Ruben Salazar. There were upward of 5,000 small-scale, mostly politically motivated, bombings in the United States beginning in 1968. [23] The actions of the Chicano Liberation Front initially blended in to the near-daily headlines that something had exploded somewhere. [12] The true beginnings of the Chicano Liberation Front remain obscure because of their secretive tendencies. The closest thing to a primary source on the origins of the CLF appears in a 2007 oral history produced by University of California, Los Angeles: [24]

The [Chicano] Moratorium people were being brought up on charges. That's after the second or third march. Every time, you would have a demonstration, the sheriff would just come and blow it up. Literally...Just storm the place, you know? All the time. And sure, years later, it was the sheriff's fault. But nobody cared. It's already done. But they were very effective at getting us so pissed off as a movement that [some] wanted us to take up arms. They wanted us to really fight—because they knew that we weren't going to win...People said, 'We need to take up arms.' There was a little group. They never knew who they were. They were called the Chicano Liberation Front. They did some small minor things. They did some bad bombs and all of that. They never got caught because they knew that you couldn't let anybody into the group.

— John Valadez, L.A. Xicano Project oral-history interview (2007)

The phrase Chicano liberation front first appears in print as one of several general ideas generated at a Chicano community conference in Denver in March 1970. [25]

On September 4, 1970, a bomb exploded at the Los Angeles Hall of Justice. [26] The CLF never claimed responsibility for this bombing, but the recording sent to the Los Angeles Free Press had two unintelligible or erased descriptions of events that, if the Front spokeswoman was keeping to a chronological order, would have occurred between March 1970 and September 29, 1970. [27] Furthermore, in Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice (2003), Ian F. Haney López argues that the fictionalized bombing of the Hall of Justice in Oscar Acosta's Revolt of the Cockroach People broadly derives from real-world activities of the CLF. [28] Acosta's narrative conflates the Hall of Justice bombing of 1970, which had no casualties, and the fatal consequences of the 1971 L.A. federal building bombing, and states that the intended target of the novel's Hall of Justice bomb was Superior Court Judge Arthur Alarcón. [28]

The first public notice that the CLF even existed came with the April 1971 explosion of a bomb in the second-floor men's room at Los Angeles' landmark City Hall building. Future Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley, then a city councilman, was seated 150 ft (46 m) away from the late-afternoon explosion. [29] A woman made a call to the City News Service and repeated a phrase three times: "The bomb at City Hall is in memory of the Sanchez brothers...Chicano Liberation Front." [29] Following the city hall bombing, a "police undercover agent" reportedly claimed that the group was "similar" to the Weather Underground, that it had been formed in Northern California in 1970, and that the group's membership in the Southern California area was "relatively small" but "hardcore." [30]

"Mad Bombers of L.A." cover story, Los Angeles Free Press, issue 358, dated May 28 - June 3, 1971 (Archives and Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut via JSTOR's Reveal Digital) Los Angeles Free Press 1971-05-28 Mad Bombers of L.A. cover story.jpg
"Mad Bombers of L.A." cover story, Los Angeles Free Press, issue 358, dated May 28 – June 3, 1971 (Archives and Special Collections at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center, University of Connecticut via JSTOR's Reveal Digital)

In May 1971, Los Angeles County's primary alternative newspaper of the era, the Los Angeles Free Press, published a cover story called "The Mad Bombers of L.A." which featured a detailed list of notable bombings in the greater Los Angeles area since April 1970. [31] The Free Press (Freep for short) was well-known for calling out extrajudicial killings of civilians by law enforcement. [32] Apparently this reputation, in combination with the bombing index compiled by reporter Michael Blake and persistent interview requests made by LAFP city editor Judie Lewellen, [27] compelled the CLF to say their piece in the form of a recording.

We are students, janitors, so-called wetbacks, concerned parents, Vietnam veterans...we are the fighting vanguard of La Raza...fed up with our people being treated like dogs.

— Recording mailed to Los Angeles Free Press, August 1971 [9]

The August 1971 tape, which listed a couple dozen bombings the group wanted credit for, pointedly does not mention the January 1971 explosion that killed 18-year-old part-time mail orderly Tomas Ortiz. [9] Ortiz's death, if it was CLF, was the only death—and seemingly the only casualty of any kind—that could or would be attributed to the Chicano Liberation Front bombing spree. [15] A 2000 analysis of patterns of domestic terrorism in the United States classified the death of Ortiz under "accidental and unintended," stating that some murders by terrorist groups were "clearly not intended" and included the killing of "a Chicano employee by the Chicano Liberation Front" as an example. [33] The CLF statement also insisted that the overall lack of injuries or deaths resulting from their attacks was because the group's bombs were "carefully researched and accomplished. We would never jeopardize the life of any person, whoever he may be." [27]

The spokeswoman also lectured the editors of the Los Angeles Free Press that if they were really the radical outlet they purported to be, they should educate themselves on the following people/cases:

Per the Los Angeles Times citing law-enforcement sources, the first three were charged with various flavors of homicide, the last was a 19-year-old charged with firebombing an Eastside high school and, separately, a U.S. Army Reserve building. [9] Freddie De Larosa Plank was arrested in April 1970 after he and three unidentified companions attempted to light the Lincoln High School admin building on fire by shooting at a pile of gunpowder set on a gasoline-soaked office carpet. [8] Otherwise in April 1970 Plank and another student, Jorge Rodriguez, were named as student leaders of a school reform movement at Roosevelt High, both of whom had been expelled for failure to disperse during a demonstration. [34] Plank and Rodriguez then set up Euclid High, a continuation school program for 50-odd students who had also been expelled. [34]

In June 1971, the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner , the city's afternoon paper, received a phone call during which the Chicano Liberation Front claimed responsibility for a bomb placed at Roosevelt High in East Los Angeles. A police spokesman told the Associated Press at that time that the CLF claimed, in leaflets, to be "devoted to harassing police." [35] A 2017 history of the school (produced in anticipation of a remodel) stated that the school's "R-Building" was the site of "small bombing events" and arson actions by the Chicano Liberation Front in the 1970s. [36] The school was hit at least three times and while "no one was injured, damage to two main buildings required repairs." [37]

Police officer Peters inspects bomb damage at Roosevelt High on September 29, 1970; Roosevelt was one of CLF's most frequent targets. (Photographed by Russell Pursley for the Herald Examiner, No. 00095526 via TESSA Digital Collections, Los Angeles Public Library) TESSA Digital Collections of the Los Angeles Public Library 00095526 Herald Examiner HE box 41 Bomb rips Roosevelt High School 1970-09-29.jpg
Police officer Peters inspects bomb damage at Roosevelt High on September 29, 1970; Roosevelt was one of CLF's most frequent targets. (Photographed by Russell Pursley for the Herald Examiner, No. 00095526 via TESSA Digital Collections, Los Angeles Public Library)

August 1971 was the occasion of the first anniversary of the death of journalist Ruben Salazar, who had been struck in the temple by a tear-gas canister fired into a restaurant by a L.A. County sheriff's deputy at the National Chicano Moratorium March. Unrest was expected, and when interviewed by the Los Angeles Times (where Salazar had once worked), "More than one activist cited the bombings as the most extreme reflection of the bitterness felt by at least one small segment of East Los Angeles' Mexican-American community." [38] The CLF distributed flyers advocating vigilante/guerrilla action, but as it happened, the anniversary of Salazar's death passed without incident. [39]

In September 1971 a professor of human behavior told an Associated Press reporter that radical bombings in California were mostly perpetrated by bourgeois whites or "Mexican-Americans living up to a revolutionary tradition." [10] A 1972 statement of the "national policies" of the Brown Berets specifically repudiated the Chicano Liberation Front: "Any Brown Beret who identifies as being part of the small scattered incidents of the Chicano Liberation Front is terminated." [40]

Chicano Liberation Front bombing in Los Angeles seemed to cease with the close of 1971, but to this day, researchers "do not know why [the CLF bombings] ended." [15] In an idiosyncratic obituary of Chicano activist attorney Oscar Zeta Acosta written for Rolling Stone in 1977, Hunter S. Thompson (author of the article about the Chicano Movement called "Strange Rumblings in Aztlan") articulated a strong impression that Acosta could have been directly involved in the Chicano Liberation Front bombings. [41] He described the lawyer as someone who stayed up all night "eating acid and throwing Molotov cocktails" and then arrived for morning court on a waft of gasoline fumes, with "a green crust of charred soap-flakes" visible on his status-symbol snakeskin cowboy boots. [42] [41] Furthermore, Acosta had apparently written to Thompson in 1972 to the effect that: "I think I can make a pretty good argument that it was you, or God through you, that called a halt to the bombings...Which means that you'll be remembered as the Benedict Arnold of the cockroach revolt." [28]

After 1971, CLF claims of responsibility were mostly for incidents that occurred outside of Los Angeles. These were likely distinct entities borrowing the name and some of the ideological messaging of the original. [14] The New World Liberation Front in particular was an extremely prolific and chaotic terrorist "brand" that adapted a variety of personas original to other underground radicals of the era. [12] Nonetheless, the name CLF appeared sporadically in crime reports until the middle of the decade. Some of the mid-1970s incidents for which the "Chicano Liberation Front" claimed responsibility included three Safeway bombs planted in Northern California in 1974, [43] bombs planted around the Bay Area in 1975 (these explosions were "dedicated" to the United Farm Workers, which in turn denounced the bombers), [44] a police substation bombing and incidents at two other locations in El Paso, Texas in 1975, [45] and a clutch of Bank of America and Safeway bombings in the San Francisco area in early 1975. [46] Following several explosions in Sacramento in 1975, a newspaper reported that "An inquiry is also expected into the series of bombings around this area for the last 18 months, most of them claimed by the so-called New World Liberation Front, but some by a group calling itself the Chicano Liberation Front." [47] By the end of 1975, people stopped tossing dynamite on the roofs of banks in the name of the Chicano Liberation Front; a report on domestic terrorism happenings in February 1976 said the Chicano Liberation Front had "been silent for at least a year." [48]

Cover line: "Barrio Bombers Speak Out" (Center for Southwest Research, University of New Mexico - Underground Newspaper Collection) Center for Southwest Research University of New Mexico - Underground Newspaper Collection MSS 514 BC Box 48 Los Angeles Free Press 1971-08-13 Issue 369 Chicano Liberation Front 01.png
Cover line: "Barrio Bombers Speak Out" (Center for Southwest Research, University of New Mexico – Underground Newspaper Collection)

In one long-time Chicano activist's memoir, published in 2019, he recalled the CLF from a distance of almost 50 years: "The bombings were more symbolic than anything else; I do not remember that anyone was ever hurt. Buildings were damaged, including several banks, but not human life." [49] One history says "it is impossible to rule out" FBI or LAPD false-flag action. [22] The FBI case-file number for the Chicano Liberation Front was 105-209116. [50]

Timeline

Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as:

The following is not a list of Chicano Liberation Front bombings. There is little scholarship that examines the CLF outside of the general context of Chicano Movement, and there is no known publicly available list of confirmed CLF-attributed bombings; this is the case for several of the amorphous domestic terrorist groups of the era. [12]

This is an incomplete timeline of bombings, fire bombings, burglaries and arson fires that appeared in news reports that referenced the CLF or CLF-associated people, events for which the CLF claimed responsibility, and events that were part of a series of otherwise unexplained events that correlate to known CLF or CLF-splinter-group actions. For example, the CLF claimed responsibility for one bombing in Fresno in 1972 but there were four previous, unattributed, unsolved bombings in Fresno that generally match the pattern of CLF action and that occurred during the general era when CLF flourished. The list also includes a small number of bombings that were suspected CLF actions for which the CLF specifically denied responsibility.

Coordinates used are for the front entrance of an event site unless additional specifics were included in news reports. Firebomb is used here as a shorthand for what is properly an incendiary device. Bomb is used to describe what is now called an improvised explosive device .

EventYYYY-MM-DDHHMMDay of weekLocationStreet addressCoordinatesCLF claim of responsibility?CasualtiesProperty damageNotes
Attempted burglary [51] 1970-01-13 (est.)Tuesday (est.) Roosevelt High School 456 S Mathews St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°02′19″N118°12′41″W / 34.0385°N 118.2115°W / 34.0385; -118.2115 0Attempt to break in to Roosevelt Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) weapons storage area
Burglary [51] 1970-02-06Friday Lincoln High School 3501 N Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90031 34°04′26″N118°12′14″W / 34.0739°N 118.204°W / 34.0739; -118.204 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 052 World War II-era M-1 rifles, and 10 "firing pins and extractors" stolen from ROTC armory area at school
Burglary [51] 1970-02-12 (est.)Thursday (est.) Wilson High School 4500 Multnomah St, Los Angeles, CA 90032 34°04′13″N118°11′08″W / 34.0703°N 118.1856°W / 34.0703; -118.1856 0Break-in and ransacking of Wilson ROTC weapons storage area; no weapons theft because ROTC instructor had shipped the guns to ROTC headquarters after hearing about the Roosevelt and Lincoln break-ins
Fire [52] 1970-04-08WednesdayRoosevelt High admin building456 S Mathews St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°02′19″N118°12′41″W / 34.0385°N 118.2115°W / 34.0385; -118.2115 0$100,000
Fire [9] [52] 1970-04-15WednesdayRoosevelt High one-story storage building456 S Mathews St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°02′19″N118°12′41″W / 34.0385°N 118.2115°W / 34.0385; -118.2115 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Fire [9] [52] 1970-04-20MondayBoard of Education admin building1549 Norfolk St, Los Angeles, CA 90033Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Firebomb [31] 1970-04-220230 ("2:30 a.m.")Wednesday Bank of America branchWabash Avenue and Sentinel Avenue, Boyle Heights 34°02′57″N118°11′43″W / 34.0493°N 118.1953°W / 34.0493; -118.1953 0"Extensive" damage; estimated repair costs of $30,000Three Molotov cocktails, one failed to ignite; "Three persons fleeing in an automobile moments after..." [52]
Attempted arson [53] [54] 1970-04-27MondayLincoln High School attendance office3501 N Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90031 34°04′26″N118°12′14″W / 34.0739°N 118.204°W / 34.0739; -118.204 0Janitor found four youths trying to light a fire; Freddie Plank was the only one apprehended, he was carrying a .22 which the suspects had been using to try to light a fire by shooting at gasoline and gunpowder poured on a rug [8]
Suspected arson [54] 1971-04-27MondayAudubon Junior High storage building4120 11th Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90008 34°00′30″N118°19′44″W / 34.0084°N 118.3288°W / 34.0084; -118.3288 0$20,000
Suspected arson [54] 1971-04-27MondayHooper Avenue Elementary School1225 E 52nd St, Los Angeles, CA 90011 33°59′46″N118°15′12″W / 33.996°N 118.2533°W / 33.996; -118.2533 0more than $20,000 damage
Firebomb [31] 1970-04-27MondayBank of America branch3475 Whittier Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90023 34°01′37″N118°11′55″W / 34.0270°N 118.1986°W / 34.0270; -118.1986 0$2,500 to a teller's cage and bank records [54] Molotov cocktail through rear door
Bomb [31] 1970-05-10Sunday Selective Service office5828 Hollywood Blvd (?)0$5,000Bomb was "small, homemade"
Bomb [31] 1970-05-28ThursdaySelective Service officeDowntown Los Angeles0$1,000Bomb was "homemade"
Bomb [31] 1970-06-08MondaySheriff's station parking lot7901 S Compton Ave, Compton, CA 90222 33°55′11″N118°14′46″W / 33.9198°N 118.2462°W / 33.9198; -118.2462 0$5,000 damage to vehicles"Military-type grenade"
Attempted bombing [31] 1970-07-26Saturday Los Angeles Times building 202 W 1st St, Los Angeles, CA 90012 34°03′11″N118°14′41″W / 34.0531°N 118.2447°W / 34.0531; -118.2447 0NoneBlack-powder bomb; no explosion at set time; placed in building foyer
Fake bomb [55] 1970-09-04Friday City of Commerce City Hall2535 Commerce Way, Commerce, CA 90040 34°00′06″N118°09′21″W / 34.0016°N 118.1559°W / 34.0016; -118.1559 0None"A fake bomb, a wrapping of La Raza newspapers and wire was found on the front steps of the City of Commerce City Hall this evening"
Bomb [31] [26] 1970-09-060052 [56] (another account states "shortly after midnight...12:55 a.m.") [26] Sunday Los Angeles Hall of Justice, sixth floor211 W Temple St, Los Angeles, CA 90012 34°03′20″N118°14′32″W / 34.0555°N 118.2423°W / 34.0555; -118.2423 A call came in two minutes after the explosion saying there would be an explosion in three minutes; law enforcement wasn't sure if it was mistiming by bombers, a prank, or a coincidence [26] 0$10,000 damage, destroyed a staircase, destroyed a restroom, damaged a second restroom; [56] "blew out" a 9 ft (2.7 m) by 12 ft (3.7 m) wall, "peeled back the ceiling like a tin can," and broke a 6 in (15 cm) water main [26] Seemingly placed in a "metal pipe chest" in the stairway. [56] The sixth floor was the district attorney's office; [7] [56] district attorney Evelle Younger appears in news photos inspecting bomb damage. [26]
Bomb [9] [31] 1970-09-29TuesdayRoosevelt High School456 S Mathews St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°02′19″N118°12′41″W / 34.0385°N 118.2115°W / 34.0385; -118.2115 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0"Little damage...due to poor placement" [31]
Bomb [57] 1970-10-31SaturdayU.S. Army induction center1030 H St, Fresno, CA 93721 36°43′58″N119°47′31″W / 36.7328°N 119.792°W / 36.7328; -119.792 Unclaimed0"Considerable damage to the building's front"Dynamite used
Bomb [57] 1970-10-31SaturdayFresno Guide office1963 H St, Fresno, CA 93721 36°44′31″N119°48′11″W / 36.7419°N 119.803°W / 36.7419; -119.803 Unclaimed0Newspaper printing plant; dynamite at front exploded simultaneously with induction center blast 1 mi (1.6 km) away, also on H St
Bomb [31] 1970-11-05ThursdayBank of America branch7073 Santa Monica Blvd, West Hollywood, CA 90038 34°05′27″N118°20′37″W / 34.0907°N 118.3435°W / 34.0907; -118.3435 0$50Explosion "failed to penetrate roof"
Bomb [31] 1971-01-01Friday El Monte Municipal Courts Building11301 Valley Blvd, El Monte, CA 91731 34°04′16″N118°01′50″W / 34.0712°N 118.0306°W / 34.0712; -118.0306 0Broken windows, door damagedSmall bomb placed at rear door
Attempted bombing [31] 1971-01-22FridayL.A. County welfare office4900 Triggs St, Commerce, CA 90022 34°00′47″N118°09′59″W / 34.0131°N 118.1663°W / 34.0131; -118.1663 0Dynamite bomb, placed at front door, discovered and disarmed
Bomb [31] 1971-01-291630 [58] Friday 1971 L.A. federal building bombing 300 N Los Angeles St, Los Angeles, CA 90012 34°03′13″N118°14′26″W / 34.0536°N 118.2405°W / 34.0536; -118.2405 Unclaimed1Washbasins shattered, 4 ft (1.2 m) hole in wall, bathrooms on floors above and below damaged; [59] "Thousands of dollars" [31] Explosion killed Thomas Ortiz of City Terrace, a teenage orderly. Both of Ortiz's legs were blown off and he suffered "severe head injuries," dying en route to the hospital. [60]
Bomb [61] 1971-04-011455 [62] ("shortly before 5pm") [29] Thursday Los Angeles City Hall, second floor men's bathroom (the first three floors of the building were open to the public)200 N Spring St, Los Angeles, CA 90012 34°03′16″N118°14′32″W / 34.05439°N 118.2421°W / 34.05439; -118.2421 Phone call to City News Service; female caller repeated her statement three times: "The bomb at City Hall is in memory of the Sanchez brothers...Chicano Liberation Front." [29] Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0Broken mirrors, broken water pipe, damaged sinks, damaged walls; [61] $5,000 of damage, [63] several thousand dollars" [29] "Short, plump, young woman" seen leaving men's room; [61] described as "about 20," wearing brown pants and a brown suede hat; [29] Herald-Examiner photo of damage at LAPL
Bomb [9] [64] 1971-04-03SaturdayBank of America branch5057 W Pico Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90019 34°02′54″N118°20′52″W / 34.0482°N 118.3479°W / 34.0482; -118.3479 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0$5,000 [64] Same branch bombed again four days later [64]
Bomb [31] 1971-04-07TuesdayBank of America branch5057 W Pico Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90019 34°02′54″N118°20′52″W / 34.0482°N 118.3479°W / 34.0482; -118.3479 0"little damage""low-charge explosive device"
Bomb [65] 1971-04-08 [65] 0930 (930am)Thursday Fresno County Courthouse, seventh floor men's bathroom1100 Van Ness Ave, Fresno, CA 93724 36°44′11″N119°47′21″W / 36.7364°N 119.7892°W / 36.7364; -119.7892 "Police said a man telephoned a few minutes later using the words bomb and Chicano Liberation Front. The operator said the man spoke very rapidly and she was unable to understand exactly what was said." [66] 0Stall doors destroyed bathroom entry door damaged, hole in wall, ceiling damage; [65] debris entered steno pool room [57] Bomb apparently "set in or near one of three toilet bowls"; "stocky, swarthy man wearing a dark sweater" seen in restroom before blast [57]
Bomb [31] 1971-04-16FridaySelective Service office7412 S Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90003 33°58′20″N118°16′41″W / 33.9723°N 118.2781°W / 33.9723; -118.2781 0Gas and water lines ruptured, otherwise minor damage
Bomb [57] 1971-04-20TuesdayU.S. Army induction center1030 H St, Fresno, CA 93721 36°43′58″N119°47′31″W / 36.7328°N 119.792°W / 36.7328; -119.792 Unclaimed0"Considerable damage to the building's front"Ammonium nitrate and petroleum used
Bomb [67] 1971-04-230030 ("shortly after midnight")FridayCalifornia state parole board officeFresno – Possibly 5060 E Clinton Way, Fresno, CA 93727018 in (46 cm) hole in roofBomb thought to have been tossed onto roof
Bomb [9] [68] 1971-04-28WednesdayBank of America branch2430 N Broadway, Lincoln Heights, CA 90031 34°04′24″N118°12′57″W / 34.0734°N 118.2158°W / 34.0734; -118.2158 0
Bomb [31] 1971-04-29ThursdayBank of America branch2430 N Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90031 34°04′24″N118°12′57″W / 34.0734°N 118.2158°W / 34.0734; -118.2158 Hole in roof measures 1 ft (0.30 m) in diameterBlack-powder bomb thrown on roof
Bomb [9] 1971-04-302122 ("just 38 minutes before" BofA bombing in Montebello) [68] Friday Safeway store 3600 E Brooklyn Ave; since 1994, [69] 3600 E Cesar E Chavez Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90063 34°02′24″N118°11′11″W / 34.04°N 118.1865°W / 34.04; -118.1865 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 012 in (30 cm) hole in roof; damage estimated at less than $1,000 [68]
Bomb [9] [31] 1971-04-302200 ("10 p.m.")FridayBank of America branch833 W Whittier Blvd, Montebello, CA 90640 34°00′36″N118°06′36″W / 34.0101°N 118.1099°W / 34.0101; -118.1099 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0Damage to ground and second floor"Black powder device, was placed at the bank's rear entrance located in an alley" [68]
Bomb [9] 1971-05-06Thursday Chevron Chemical Co. buildingEast Los AngelesClaim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0200 windows broken, Southern Pacific oil tank car damaged
Bomb [9] 1971-05-08SaturdayL.A. County Department of Public Social Services building2707 S Grand Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90007 34°01′31″N118°16′24″W / 34.0252°N 118.2732°W / 34.0252; -118.2732 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0No damage estimate given
Firebomb [9] 1971-05-08SaturdayShopping Bag marketAltadena, CaliforniaClaim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Bomb [9] 1971-05-11TuesdayGlendale Federal Savings & LoanE 1st StClaim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Bomb [9] [31] 1971-05-12WednesdayBank of America branchWoodland Hills, Los AngelesClaim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971.0
Firebomb [31] 1971-05-12WednesdayBank of America branch20946 Devonshire St, Chatsworth, CA 913110$1500Flaming gallon jug of gasoline
Bomb [9] 1971-06-03ThursdayAtlantic Savings & Loan5301 E Whittier Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90022 34°01′13″N118°09′21″W / 34.0204°N 118.1557°W / 34.0204; -118.1557 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0Blew dirt out of a planter [70]
Bomb [9] UnknownUnited California BankEl Sereno, CaliforniaClaim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Bomb [71] 1971-06-041730 ("5:30pm")FridayRoosevelt High456 S Mathews St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°02′19″N118°12′41″W / 34.0385°N 118.2115°W / 34.0385; -118.2115 Phone call to Los Angeles Herald-Examiner switchboard ("The Chicano Liberation Front has just blown up an East Los Angeles school.")0Damaged lockers, broken windows, damaged doorTwo hours after school ended; bomb was placed in a locker; bomb "may have been attached to a timing device."
Bomb [72] 1971-06 Joaquin Murieta Center, "federally funded college recruitment and placement center"East Los AngelesCLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0
Bomb [73] 1971-06-11Friday KALI (Spanish-language radio station)Hollywood, Los AngelesCLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0"Slightly damaged"Radio station bombings were about an hour apart
Bomb [73] 1971-06-11Friday KWKW (Spanish-language radio station)Pasadena, CACLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0"Slightly damaged"Radio station bombings were about an hour apart
Bomb [73] 1971-06-13EarlySunday KMEX (Spanish-language TV station)CLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0Window broken"Homemade" bomb placed at gas station next door
Bomb [73] 1971-06-13LateSundayMexican government tourism office Wilshire Blvd, Downtown Los AngelesCLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0Blew out the windows, no interior damageSingle stick of dynamite tossed at door
Bomb [74] 1971-06-17"Late"Thursday La Opinión newspaper officeCLF: "We would like to dissociate ourselves" from the recent bombings of Spanish-language media outlets. [9] 0"Extensive damage to the front office...several thousand dollars"Device thrown through front window; employees were in the back of the building.
Bomb [57] 1971-06-20Sunday Fresno City Hall 0"Shattered most of the glass in the building's entryway""Dynamite and plastice[ sic ] explosive"; "two young men" reportedly fled in a "faded old car"
Bomb [75] 1971-06-22Tuesday Cal State LA 5151 State University Dr, Los Angeles, CA 90032 34°03′53″N118°10′21″W / 34.0647°N 118.1726°W / 34.0647; -118.1726 )Anonymous caller to newspaper0 Campus police car wrecked
Bomb [75] 1971-06-22"Two hours after" CSLA bomb explodedTuesday evening Lincoln High School 3501 N Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90031 34°04′26″N118°12′14″W / 34.0739°N 118.204°W / 34.0739; -118.204 Anonymous caller to newspaper0"Heavy damage"; 12 in (30 cm) hole in floor [76] Counselor's office in admin building [76]
Bomb [75] 1971-06-22Tuesday eveningPolice patrol car reporting to Lincoln High bomb3501 N Broadway, Los Angeles, CA 90031 34°04′26″N118°12′14″W / 34.0739°N 118.204°W / 34.0739; -118.204 Anonymous call to newspaper0Minor damagePlaced underneath police car
Bomb [75] 1971-06-232330 (11:30 pm)WednesdayBelvedere Junior High312 N Record Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90063 34°02′23″N118°10′56″W / 34.03967°N 118.1822°W / 34.03967; -118.1822 0One room destroyed, three rooms seriously damagedPlaced on windowsill in "administration section"
Bomb [77] 1971-07-02"shortly after midnight"Friday 63rd Army Reserve Command (Armory)1350 San Pablo St, Los Angeles, CA 90033 34°03′38″N118°12′14″W / 34.0606°N 118.204°W / 34.0606; -118.204 Phone call to police before explosion female voice; call to Herald Examiner: "I want to tell you the Chicano Liberation Front bombed an armory in Lincoln Heights." [78] 0Glass door and 24 windows broken; [77] door ripped off hinges, 20 windows broken"Crude pipe bomb"; Freddie Plank charged with "firebombing" the armory [9]
Bomb [79] 1971-07-04SundayIRS office, San Jose, California0$500,000 damage; large hole in ceiling of first-floor storeroomIRS investigator: "Probably made of amtho [ sic ] and dynamite"
Firebomb [80] 1971-07-060019 ("12.19 a.m.")Tuesday Montebello High School 2100 W. Cleveland Ave., Montebello, CA 90640 34°00′55″N118°07′22″W / 34.0152°N 118.1229°W / 34.0152; -118.1229 "Male Latin" called Los Angeles Times: "Take this down, we just bombed Montebello High." Also, "Based on calls received by various agencies in the Los Angeles area, police believed the bombing was the work of the Chicano Liberation Front."0Classroom destroyed by fire, several damaged; "entire wing of school suffered smoke and water damage" [79] "Shoved can full of flammable liquid through a window" [79]
Bomb [9] [81] 1971-07-08ThursdayU.S. Post Office3641 E 8th St, Los Angeles, CA 90023 34°01′09″N118°11′55″W / 34.0192°N 118.1986°W / 34.0192; -118.1986 Claim of responsibility on recording sent to Freep in August 1971. [9] 0
Bomb [82] 1971-07-080147 [83] ThursdayPan American National Bank3626 E 1st St, Los Angeles, CA 90063 [83] 34°02′09″N118°11′18″W / 34.0358°N 118.1883°W / 34.0358; -118.1883 No calls before or after [83] 0Door, front window broken by flying chair; $2,500 [84] to $5,000 damage estimate [83] Bomb left at rear door; pipe bomb with "unknown" explosive" [83]
Bomb [84] 1971-07-08nightLate ThursdayU.S. Post Office3641 E 8th St, Los Angeles, CA 90023 34°01′09″N118°11′55″W / 34.0192°N 118.1986°W / 34.0192; -118.1986 Unidentified male caller to Los Angeles Herald-Examiner "Can you take a message?" Claimed CLF was responsible; also claimed an "Army recruiting car" was blown up but "the windows had been broken out with tire irons not explosives" [81] 0Windows broken
Bomb threat [84] 1971-07-08ThursdayLos Angeles City HallBomb threat against city hall called into Herald Examiner but no bomb found [84]
Bomb [85] 1971-07-182222 (10:22 pm)SundayBank of America branchMonterey ParkUnidentified caller phoned news agencies eight minutes after the explosion0Broken door, broken windows"dynamite explosion," placed at rear door; one of "more than 50" Bank of America branch bombings in California YTD
Firebomb [86] 1971-10-30Friday Oxnard High School 3400 W Gonzales Rd, Oxnard, CA 93036 34°13′08″N119°12′50″W / 34.2190°N 119.2140°W / 34.2190; -119.2140 0$30,000Graffiti of "CLF" initials, presumed to mean Chicano Liberation Front
Bomb [87] 1972-04-03Sunday U.S. Border Patrol officeUnknown street address, Fresno, CALetter sent to newspaper0Screen door blown off, main door undamaged, three windows broken [88] Police surmised that the blast was the result of one stick of dynamite [88]
Firebomb [21] [89] 1972-05-190215 ("2:15 a.m.")Friday Valencia High School administration building500 N Bradford St, Placentia, CA 92870 33°52′41″N117°52′02″W / 33.8780°N 117.8671°W / 33.8780; -117.8671 Unidentified caller stated that CLF had bombed the school0$1,000"gasoline-filled soft drink bottles with cloth wicks"; the school principal said they had no beef with any "Chicano Liberation Front" and thought the attack was the work of "ordinary vandals"
Sniper attack [90] 1974-06-11Tuesday Assassination of William Cann at Our Lady of the Rosary Catholic Church703 C St, Union City, CA 94587 37°36′13″N122°01′29″W / 37.6035°N 122.0248°W / 37.6035; -122.0248 A week after the shooting, the San Francisco Chronicle received a mimeographed letter claiming that the Chicano Liberation Front was responsible for the shooting; two weeks after the shooting police started that the letter "could not be authenticated" and had no info on the shooting that was not public information [91] 5Chief Cann was hit twice and died two months later from his wounds; "four Chicanos were hurt during the attack"

Legacy

"Strange Rumblings in Aztlan" appeared in issue 81 of Rolling Stone magazine; photos of the day (and of the kind of tear-gas canister) that killed Salazar came from La Raza and the L.A. Times; Annie Leibovitz made the portrait of Oscar Acosta and shot scenes of life in East L.A. Strange Rumblings in Aztlan by Hunter S. Thompson feat. Oscar Zeta Acosta.jpeg
"Strange Rumblings in Aztlan" appeared in issue 81 of Rolling Stone magazine; photos of the day (and of the kind of tear-gas canister) that killed Salazar came from La Raza and the L.A. Times; Annie Leibovitz made the portrait of Oscar Acosta and shot scenes of life in East L.A.

Per a 2014 U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) analysis of patterns of domestic terrorism in the United States, the Chicano Liberation Front was responsible for two percent of all terrorist attacks in the U.S. in 1970s. [92] DHS attributes two deaths to the CLF, presumably referring to Tomas Ortiz and William Cann. [92]

The Chicano Liberation Front is a lurking presence in "Strange Rumblings in Aztlan," Hunter S. Thompson's article about Los Angeles and the Chicano Movement after the death of Salazar, which was published in Rolling Stone's April 29, 1971, issue and is anthologized in The Great Shark Hunt . [7] Thompson's narrative ends at the time of the City Hall bombing, although Acosta appears as "Dr. Gonzo" in Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas . [28] In any case, Thompson's perspective on law enforcement was not particularly in conflict with the CLF's antipathy to the local police:

The malignant reality of Ruben Salazar's death is that he was murdered by angry cops for no reason at all—and that the L.A. Sheriff's Department was and still is prepared to defend that murder on grounds that it was entirely justified.

— Hunter S. Thompson, 1971 [7]

The Chicano Liberation Front also plays a role in Acosta's roman à clef The Revolt of the Cockroach People. Acosta used a mix of invented and real names for the characters in Cockroach People—Hunter Thompson is "Stonewall," but L.A. city mayor Sam Yorty is Sam Yorty—without leaving behind a clear explanation of why or how he chose to name the players. [93] His name for the female member of the ring who called in claims of responsibility is "Elena". [28] Acosta's Cockroach People alter ego Buffalo Z. Brown describes members of the Chicano Liberation Front as vatos locos and states that they, in turn, think he is a "sheep" who is "being used," a capitalist pig, a traitor, and/or a Tío Taco. [94] [95]

In "The Banshee Screams for Buffalo Meat", Thompson's 1977 obit for Acosta, he off-handedly describes people who may have been associated with the CLF. While reminiscing about his concerns of law-enforcement infiltration in the period while he was reporting out the story that became "Strange Rumblings," Thompson addresses the by-then-long-dead Acosta (who disappeared somewhere in or around Mexico in 1974): "How many of those bomb-throwing, trigger-happy freaks who slept on mattresses in your apartment were talking to the sheriff on a chili-hall pay phone every morning?" [41] In the foreword to The Gonzo Letters, Volume II, the historian David Halberstam argues that Thompson's work is instinctual, authentic and speaks to incontrovertible human truths, which does not necessarily mean that Thompson constructed his work solely out of literal facts. [42]

The Chicano Liberation Front is also mentioned in an anti-war movement poem by Patricio Paiz called "En Memoria de Arturo Tijerina." The poet writes for a U.S. soldier from the Rio Grande Valley who was killed by a sniper two weeks after he arrived in South Vietnam in 1968. [96] Over the course of the poem, Paiz aligns himself with both "generally rebellious individuals or causes," [97] and the long history of Chicano resistance to oppression, following the line "I am the Chicano Liberation Front" with a despairing conclusion: [98]

Is there no other way?
Is violence the ONLY WAY?
Cesar Chavez y Martin Luther King. No violence.
Fasting and brotherhood awareness.
Amerikkka, I won't forget you.
La lechuga, el betabel,
the inhuman conditions my brothers have endured.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jewish Defense League</span> Jewish far-right organization

The Jewish Defense League (JDL) is a far-right religious and political organization in the United States and Canada. Its stated goal is to "protect Jews from antisemitism by whatever means necessary"; it has been classified as "right-wing terrorist group" by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) since 2001, and is also designated as hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. According to the FBI, the JDL has been involved in plotting and executing acts of terrorism within the United States. Most terrorist watch groups classify the group as inactive as of 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Front de libération du Québec</span> Militant separatist group (1963–1971)

The Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) was a militant Quebec separatist group which aimed to establish an independent and socialist Quebec through violent means. It was considered a terrorist group by the Canadian government. Founded sometime in the early 1960s, the FLQ conducted a number of attacks between 1963 and 1970, which totaled over 160 violent incidents and killed eight people and injured many more. These attacks culminated with the Montreal Stock Exchange bombing in 1969 and the October Crisis in 1970, the latter beginning with the kidnapping of British Trade Commissioner James Cross. In the subsequent negotiations, Quebec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte was kidnapped and murdered by a cell of the FLQ. Public outcry and a federal crackdown subsequently ended the crisis and resulted in a drastic loss of support for the FLQ, with a small number of FLQ members being granted refuge in Cuba.

State-sponsored terrorism is terrorist violence carried out with the active support of national governments provided to violent non-state actors. States can sponsor terrorist groups in several ways, including but not limited to funding terrorist organizations, providing training, supplying weapons, providing other logistical and intelligence assistance, and hosting groups within their borders. Because of the pejorative nature of the word, the identification of particular examples are often subject to political dispute and different definitions of terrorism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oscar Zeta Acosta</span> Mexican-American attorney, politician and novelist

Oscar "Zeta" Acosta Fierro was a Mexican American attorney, author and activist in the Chicano Movement. He wrote the semi-autobiographical novels Autobiography of a Brown Buffalo (1972) and The Revolt of the Cockroach People (1973), and was friends with American author Hunter S. Thompson. Thompson characterized him as a heavyweight Samoan attorney, Dr. Gonzo, in his 1971 novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Acosta disappeared in 1974 during a trip in Mexico and is presumed dead.

<i>The Revolt of the Cockroach People</i> Book by Oscar Zeta Acosta

The Revolt of the Cockroach People is a novel by Oscar Zeta Acosta. It tells the story of a Chicano lawyer, "Buffalo Zeta Brown", fictionalizing events from Oscar Acosta's own life, including the East L.A. walkouts at Garfield High School, the founding of the Brown Berets, the Christmas protests at St. Basil's church, the Castro v. Superior Court decision of 1970, Acosta's run for sheriff of Los Angeles County later that year, the Chicano National Moratorium, and the death of Ruben Salazar, who is referred to as "Roland Zanzibar" in the novel. The novel is written in the style of Gonzo journalism, which he helped codify the conventions with American journalist and friend Hunter S. Thompson. The story of Buffalo Z. Brown, a persona of the author, satirizes the East L.A. Chicano movement through the eyes of a participant observer. Acosta uses the historical events of the late 1960s and early 1970s "as the context for the construction of a Chicano identity and the realization of a revolutionary class consciousness."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black power movement</span> African-American social, political & cultural movement in the United States

The black power movement or black liberation movement was a branch or counterculture within the civil rights movement of the United States, reacting against its more moderate, mainstream, or incremental tendencies and motivated by a desire for safety and self-sufficiency that was not available inside redlined African American neighborhoods. Black power activists founded black-owned bookstores, food cooperatives, farms, media, printing presses, schools, clinics and ambulance services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicano Moratorium</span> Anti-Vietnam War movement organized by Mexican-American activist groups (1960s-70s)

The Chicano Moratorium, formally known as the National Chicano Moratorium Committee Against The Vietnam War, was a movement of Chicano anti-war activists that built a broad-based coalition of Mexican-American groups to organize opposition to the Vietnam War. Led by activists from local colleges and members of the Brown Berets, a group with roots in the high school student movement that staged walkouts in 1968, the coalition peaked with an August 29, 1970 march in East Los Angeles that drew 30,000 demonstrators. The march was described by scholar Lorena Oropeza as "one of the largest assemblages of Mexican Americans ever." It was the largest anti-war action taken by any single ethnic group in the USA. It was second in size only to the massive U.S. immigration reform protests of 2006.

"Strange Rumblings in Aztlan" is an article published in Rolling Stone #81, dated April 29, 1971, and written by Hunter S. Thompson. It was included in the first volume of Thompson's Gonzo Papers, The Great Shark Hunt, published in 1979.

The May 19th Communist Organization was a US-based far-left revolutionary group formed by members of the Weather Underground Organization. The group was originally known as the New York chapter of the Prairie Fire Organizing Committee (PFOC), an organization devoted to promoting the causes of the Weather Underground legally, as part of the Prairie Fire Manifesto's change in Weather Underground Organization strategy, which demanded both aboveground mass movements and clandestine organizations. The role of the clandestine organization would be to build the "consciousness of action" and prepare the way for the development of a people's militia. Concurrently, the role of the mass movement, the above-ground Prairie Fire Collective, would include the support for and the encouragement of armed action. Such an alliance would, according to Weather, "help create the 'sea' for the guerrillas to swim in." The M19CO name was derived from the birthdays of Ho Chi Minh and Malcolm X. The May 19 Communist Organization was active from 1978 to 1985. M19CO was a combination of the Black Liberation Army and the Weather Underground. It also included members of the Black Panthers, White Panthers, and the Republic of New Afrika (RNA).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ruben Salazar</span> Mexican-American civil rights activist and journalist; killed by riot police in 1970

Ruben Salazar was a civil rights activist and a reporter for the Los Angeles Times. He was the first Mexican journalist from mainstream media to cover the Chicano community.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicano Movement</span> Social and political movement combating racism in the United States

The Chicano Movement, also referred to as El Movimiento, was a social and political movement in the United States that worked to embrace a Chicano/a identity and worldview that combated structural racism, encouraged cultural revitalization, and achieved community empowerment by rejecting assimilation. Chicanos also expressed solidarity and defined their culture through the development of Chicano art during El Movimiento, and stood firm in preserving their religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jesús Salvador Treviño</span> American film director

Jesús Salvador Treviño is an American television director of Mexican descent.

On 22 July 1985, two bombs exploded in a terrorist attack in Copenhagen, Denmark. One of the bombs exploded near the Great Synagogue and a Jewish nursing home and kindergarten, and another at the offices of Northwest Orient Airlines. At least one more bomb, planned for the El Al airline offices, was discovered. One person was killed and 26 people were injured in the attacks. Sweden-based Palestinians Abu Talb and Marten Imandi were sentenced to life imprisonment in Sweden for the bombings, which were part of a series of attacks in 1985 and 1986, while two co-conspirators received lesser sentences of one and six years imprisonment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1971 L.A. federal building bombing</span> Fatal explosion in California

On January 28, 1971, at 4:30 p.m. PST, an explosion in the second-floor men's room of the 300 North Los Angeles Street federal building in California, United States, killed 18-year-old employee Tomas Ortiz, a resident of City Terrace. Ortiz was a student at L.A. Trade Tech, and a part-time employee of the General Services Administration, assigned to the Internal Revenue Service. News accounts variously described him as a "janitor" and a "mail orderly."

The deaths of Guillermo Sanchez and Guillardo Sanchez occurred on July 16, 1970, when the Los Angeles Police Department raided their apartment at 826 E. 7th St. in downtown Los Angeles in the U.S. state of California. The cousins were both shot and killed during the raid. Guillermo Beltran Sanchez was 22 years old, Guillardo Alcazar Sanchez was 21. The incident was dubbed the mistake shooting by the newspapers. Journalist Ruben Salazar, who would himself be killed by an L.A. County sheriff's deputy in August 1970, featured interviews with survivors of the raid on KMEX. The following year the militant Chicano Liberation Front claimed responsibility for bombing Los Angeles City Hall with a telephone message that stated that the bomb was "in memory of the Sanchez brothers."

La Casa de Carnalismo or Casa Carnalismo was a militant Chicano community group in East Los Angeles in the U.S. state of California that was organized in spring 1969. According to one account, the group's leadership found that "the heavy flow of heroin and seconals into the barrio was an obstacle to consciousness-raising and organized political action." Three members of the group, Rodolfo Sanchez, Juan Fernandez and Alberto Ortiz, all in their early 20s, were charged with shooting and robbing a drug dealer at the Estrada Courts housing project in July 1970. The agent of the U.S. Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, Robert E. Canales, was paralyzed from the waist down in the shooting. They were charged and sentenced in federal court to 40 years, 25 years, and 10 years, respectively, for "conspiring to assault and rob a federal agent of federal monies." Leftists thought it was a "frame-up," and they became known as the Carnalismo Three, or Los Tres.

Jesus "Chuy" Campusano, was an American Chicano visual artist, and muralist. He was a well-known contributor to San Francisco's arts in the 1970s and 1980s; and was a co-founder of Galería de la Raza, a non-profit community focused gallery that featured Latino and Chicano artists and their allies.

References

  1. ↑ Miller, Erin (May 15, 2019), "Ideological Motivations of Terrorism in the United States, 1970—2018" (PDF), Advanced Development for Security Applications (ADSA) Workshop 20, National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism An Emeritus Center of Excellence of the U.S. Department of Homeland
  2. 1 2 Escobar, E. J. (June 1, 2015). "The Unintended Consequences of the Carceral State: Chicana/o Political Mobilization in Post-World War II America". Journal of American History. 102 (1): 174–184. doi: 10.1093/jahist/jav312 . ISSN   0021-8723 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  3. 1 2 3 Navarro, Armando (2005). Mexicano Political Experience in Occupied Aztlan: Struggles and Change. Rowman Altamira. pp. 384–385. ISBN   978-0-7591-0567-6 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  4. 1 2 3 Rosales, Francisco Arturo (January 1, 2006). Dictionary of Latino Civil Rights History. Arte Publico Press. p. 84. ISBN   978-1-61192-039-0 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  5. ↑ Hewitt, Christopher (2005). Political Violence and Terrorism in Modern America: A Chronology. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 76. ISBN   978-0-313-33418-4 – via Google Books.
  6. ↑ Rosales, Francisco Arturo (January 1, 2006). Dictionary of Latino Civil Rights History. Arte Publico Press. p. 84. ISBN   978-1-61192-039-0 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Thompson, Hunter S. (1979). "Strange Rumblings in Aztlan". The great shark hunt: strange tales from a strange time. New York: Simon & Schuster; A Rolling Stone Press book. ISBN   978-1-4516-6925-1. OCLC   892937797.
  8. 1 2 3 "Youth is booked". Daily News-Post. Monrovia, Calif. April 27, 1970. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30– via Newspapers.com.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Houston, Paul; Rodriguez, Frank (August 14, 1971). "'Front' Sends Tape to Underground Paper; Chicanos Claim They Bombed 28 Buildings". Part II. Los Angeles Times . pp. 1, 10. Archived from the original on 2023-05-03. Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Newspapers.com.
  10. 1 2 Sharbutt, Jay (September 7, 1971). "Bombing by Militants Accelerates in State". Santa Cruz Sentinel . Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via California Digital Newspaper Collection.
  11. ↑ Valadez, John (2013). "CSRC ORAL HISTORIES SERIES: John Valadez, interview with Karen Mary Davalos, November 19 and 21, and December 3, 7, and 12, 2007" (PDF) (Interview). No. 10. Interviewed by Karen Mary Davalos. Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Burrough, Bryan (2015). Days of Rage: America's Radical Underground, the FBI, and the First Age of Terror. New York City: Penguin Press. pp. 354–360 (NWLF). ISBN   978-0-698-17007-0. OCLC   906028786.
  13. ↑ Raigoza, James José (1977). The Ad Hoc Committee to Incorporate East Los Angeles: A Study on the Socio-political Orientations of Mexican American Incorporation Advocates. University of California, Los Angeles. p. 95. Archived from the original on 2023-05-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  14. 1 2 Stohl, Michael (2020). The Politics of Terrorism (3rd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-000-14704-9 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  15. 1 2 3 Escobar, Edward J. (March 1993). "The Dialectics of Repression: The Los Angeles Police Department and the Chicano Movement, 1968–1971". The Journal of American History. 79 (4): 1483–1514. doi:10.2307/2080213. JSTOR   2080213 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  16. 1 2 Navarro, Armando (January 8, 2015). Mexicano and Latino Politics and the Quest for Self-Determination: What Needs to Be Done. Lexington Books. p. 67. ISBN   978-0-7391-9736-3 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  17. ↑ Jensen, Richard J.; Hammerback, John C. (December 1980). "Radical nationalism among Chicanos: The rhetoric of José Angel Gutiérrez". Western Journal of Speech Communication. 44 (3): 191–202. doi:10.1080/10570318009374005. ISSN   0193-6700 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  18. ↑ Swenson, Timothy (2004). Assassination in Decoto: The Shooting of Union City Police Chief William Cann. Fremont, CA. ISBN   1-889064-10-6. OCLC   915140378.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. ↑ "SLA operations under a series of 'aliases'?". Berkeley Gazette. Berkeley, Calif. October 2, 1975. p. 7. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Newspapers.com.
  20. ↑ Lewinnek, Elaine; Arellano, Gustavo; Dang, Thuy Vo (January 27, 2022). "A People's Guide to Orange County". Boom California. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  21. 1 2 "Valencia High Damaged by Firebombing". The Los Angeles Times. May 20, 1972. p. 8. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  22. 1 2 Ontiveros, Randy J. (2014). In the Spirit of a New People: The Cultural Politics of the Chicano Movement. NYU Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN   978-0-8147-3877-1 . Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Google Books.
  23. ↑ "Curbs on Explosives Urged by Tunney". The Los Angeles Times. September 6, 1970. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Newspapers.com.
  24. ↑ Valadez, John (2013). "CSRC ORAL HISTORIES SERIES: John Valadez, interview with Karen Mary Davalos, November 19 and 21, and December 3, 7, and 12, 2007" (PDF) (Interview). No. 10. Interviewed by Karen Mary Davalos. Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-12-17. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  25. ↑ "Latin Plan for Own Political Party Told". The Los Angeles Times. March 30, 1970. p. 21. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Newspapers.com.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brewer, John (September 5, 1970). "Los Angeles Hall of Justice Bombed". The Napa Valley Register. Associated Press. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30– via Newspapers.com.
  27. 1 2 3 Blake, Michael (August 13, 1971). "Barrio Bombers Speak Out: Walking softly in the barrio with a big stick...of dynamite (Communique from Chicano Liberation Front)". Los Angeles Free Press . Vol. 8, no. 33. pp. 1–2. ISSN   0024-6573. Issue 369. at Underground Newspaper Collection, Series: MSS 514 BC, Box: 48. Albuquerque, N.M.: Center for Southwest Research, University of New Mexico.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 Haney-López, Ian (2003). Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 230–236 (Epilogue: Oscar Acosta). ISBN   978-0-674-03826-4. OCLC   609058795.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "L.A. City Hall hit by bomb explosion; police hunt woman". Press-Telegram. Long Beach, Calif. April 2, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-05-07. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via Newspapers.com.
  30. ↑ "City hall blast laid to Chicano group". Independent. Long Beach, Calif. April 6, 1971. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via Newspapers.com.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Blake, Michael (May 28, 1971). "The Mad Bombers of L.A.: A handy guide to L.A. bomb sites". In two parts: Part one. Los Angeles Free Press . Vol. 8, no. 22. p. 3. ISSN   0024-6573. JSTOR   community.28039937. Issue 358. Retrieved 2023-04-27– via Reveal Digital.
  32. ↑ Anania, Billie (June 11, 2020). "The Los Angeles Paper That Documented Police Brutality in the 1960s and '70s". Hyperallergic.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  33. ↑ Hewitt, Christopher (March 2000). "Patterns of American terrorism 1955–1998: An historical perspective on terrorism-related fatalities". Terrorism and Political Violence. 12 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1080/09546550008427546. ISSN   0954-6553. S2CID   146734761 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  34. 1 2 "Teenagers Willing to Fight for Academic Freedom". The Daily Mail. April 29, 1970. p. 6. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01– via Newspapers.com.
  35. ↑ "Bomb Blast Rocks High School in L.A." San Bernardino Sun. Associated Press. June 5, 1971. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via California Digital Newspaper Collection.
  36. ↑ "School board votes to remake Roosevelt High — and demolish most of its past". The Eastsider LA. May 9, 2018. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  37. ↑ Impact Sciences, Inc. (October 2017). "Roosevelt High School Comprehensive Modernization Project Initial Study" (PDF). Los Angeles Unified School District (lausd.net). Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  38. ↑ "Chicano Leaders See Few Gains Since Riot". The Los Angeles Times. August 30, 1971. p. 22. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27– via Newspapers.com.
  39. ↑ "East L.A. Drops Its Defenses Against Riot That Never Came". The Los Angeles Times. August 30, 1971. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27– via Newspapers.com.
  40. ↑ Vázquez, Francisco H., ed. (2009). Latino/a thought : culture, politics, and society (2nd ed.). Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 220. ISBN   978-0-7425-6888-4. OCLC   312478264.
  41. 1 2 3 Thompson, Hunter S. (December 15, 1977). "Fear and Loathing in the Graveyard of the Weird: The Banshee Screams for Buffalo Meat". Rolling Stone. No. RS254. Retrieved 2023-05-03.
  42. 1 2 Thompson, Hunter S. (2006). Brinkley, Douglas (ed.). Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist (The Gonzo Letters, Volume II: 1968–1976). Foreword by David Halberstam. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 26 (Douglas Brinkley introduction). ISBN   978-1-4391-2636-3. OCLC   892927608.
  43. ↑ "Chicano Group Claims It Planted Two Bombs". The Yuma Daily Sun. October 15, 1974. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27– via Newspapers.com.
  44. ↑ "Chicanos Take Credit for Bombs". Santa Cruz Sentinel. March 11, 1975. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via California Digital Newspaper Collection.
  45. ↑ "Bomb Cracks Police Substation Wall; CLF Vows Further Bombing". El Paso Herald-Post. February 6, 1975. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  46. ↑ "Leads on bombings: Protest group takes credit". The San Francisco Examiner . March 11, 1975. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27– via Newspapers.com.
  47. ↑ Turner, Wallace (October 3, 1975). "F.B.I. Reported to Have Found Writings on Hearst Kidnapping by William Harris". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  48. ↑ "Story Behind Bomb Arrests". Press Democrat. Santa Rosa, Calif. February 29, 1976. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26– via California Digital Newspaper Collection.
  49. ↑ Rodríguez, Roberto Cintli (2019). Yolqui, a warrior summoned from the spirit world : testimonios on violence. Patrisia Gonzales. Tucson. p. 38. ISBN   978-0-8165-3859-1. OCLC   1096514831.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  50. ↑ Gutierrez, José Angel (2020). FBI Surveillance of Mexicans and Chicanos, 1920–1980. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 218. ISBN   9781793615817.
  51. 1 2 3 "Police probe burglary at Wilson High". El Sereno Star. February 19, 1970. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
  52. 1 2 3 4 "Boyle Heights Bank Set Afire; Damage Estimated at $30,000". The Los Angeles Times. April 22, 1970. p. 128. Archived from the original on 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
  53. ↑ "Letter to the editor". Daily News-Post. May 4, 1970. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
  54. 1 2 3 4 "Bank, School Arson Probed". Los Angeles Evening Citizen News. April 27, 1970. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  55. ↑ "00079281". tessa2.lapl.org. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  56. 1 2 3 4 "Bombing Rocks Hall of Justice; Younger Vows Tighter Guard". The Los Angeles Times. September 6, 1970. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  57. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Unsolved Fresno bombings (reward offered for information)". The Fresno Bee. September 27, 1972. p. 52. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  58. ↑ "Deseret News 30 Jan 1971, page 1". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on 2023-02-05. Retrieved 2023-02-05.
  59. ↑ FRANK, del O. "Blast is Area's most Deadly in Decade of Tension, Violence." Los Angeles Times, August 6, 1974, pp. 3. ProQuest magic number 157566113
  60. ↑ Dye, Lee (January 30, 1971). "FEDERAL BUILDING BOMB KILLS MAN: VICTIM WAS EMPLOYEE OF TAX SERVICE". Los Angeles Times. p. 1. ProQuest   156711048.
  61. 1 2 3 "The Modesto Bee 02 Apr 1971, page 19". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  62. ↑ "The Sacramento Bee 03 Apr 1971, page 3". Newspapers.com. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  63. ↑ "Security Tightened; Police Seek Woman in City Hall Bombing". The Los Angeles Times. April 3, 1971. p. 27. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  64. 1 2 3 "Bank Bombed Twice in Four Days". The Los Angeles Times. April 7, 1971. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-29. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  65. 1 2 3 "Fresno courthouse blast". Tulare Advance-Register. April 8, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  66. ↑ "Bomb hits courthouse in Fresno". Redlands Daily Facts. April 9, 1971. p. 7. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  67. ↑ "Fresno office bombed". The Peninsula Times Tribune. April 23, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
  68. 1 2 3 4 "Supermarket, Bank Branch Are Targets". The Los Angeles Times. April 30, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-29. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  69. ↑ Wick, Julia (March 27, 2017). "How L.A.'s Brooklyn Avenue Became Avenida Cesar Chavez". LAist. Archived from the original on 2023-04-29. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  70. ↑ "Southland: Explosion of a small bomb". The Los Angeles Times. June 3, 1971. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-29. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  71. ↑ "Petaluma Argus Courier 5 June 1971 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  72. ↑ "Police Report 'Strong' Suspects in Bombing". The Los Angeles Times. June 19, 1971. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  73. 1 2 3 4 "Blast of dynamite damaged Mexican tour office in L.A." The Sacramento Bee. June 15, 1971. p. 6. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  74. ↑ "Bomb Blasts Office of Newspaper". Ventura County Star. June 18, 1971. p. 20. Archived from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  75. 1 2 3 4 "Desert Sun 24 June 1971 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  76. 1 2 "Contract awarded for bomb damage at Lincoln". Highland Park News-Herald and Journal. August 29, 1971. p. 5. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  77. 1 2 "San Bernardino Sun 3 July 1971 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  78. ↑ "Chicano front claims set off bomb". Redlands Daily Facts. July 2, 1971. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  79. 1 2 3 "Bombs hit school and IRS office". Press-Telegram. July 6, 1971. p. 8. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  80. ↑ "Montebello High Hit by Firebomb". The Los Angeles Times. July 6, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  81. 1 2 "Post Office Branch in East L.A. Hit by Bomb". The Los Angeles Times. July 10, 1971. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2023-04-28. Retrieved 2023-04-28.
  82. ↑ "Desert Sun 8 July 1971 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  83. 1 2 3 4 5 "Bank damaged in 21st L.A. Bombing". The Los Angeles Times. July 9, 1971. p. 9. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  84. 1 2 3 4 "East L.A. Post Office Bombed, 8th in Series". Progress Bulletin. July 9, 1971. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  85. ↑ "Press Democrat 19 July 1971 — California Digital Newspaper Collection". cdnc.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  86. ↑ "Militants blamed for Oxnard fire". Redlands Daily Facts. November 1, 1971. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  87. ↑ "Chicano Link to Explosion Hinted in Notes". The Los Angeles Times. April 4, 1972. p. 31. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  88. 1 2 "Border Patrol Office Is Bombed". Santa Cruz Sentinel. April 3, 1972. p. 10. Archived from the original on 2023-04-29. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  89. ↑ San Román, Gabriel (July 5, 2017). "Forty-five Years Ago, Chicanos In Placentia Rioted Against the City's Racist Police". OC Weekly. Archived from the original on 2023-04-30. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  90. ↑ "Chicano Front takes blame for attack". The Bakersfield Californian. June 22, 1974. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  91. ↑ "Chief remains in coma; Police aren't sure letter about Cann is for real". The Argus. June 25, 1974. p. 1. Archived from the original on 2023-04-27. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  92. 1 2 "Patterns of Terrorism in the United States, 1970–2013, Final Report to Resilient Systems Division" (PDF). DHS Science and Technology Directorate (dhs.gov). October 2014. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  93. ↑ Mendoza, Louis Gerard (2001). Historia: The Literary Making of Chicana and Chicano History. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. p. 210. ISBN   978-1-58544-179-2 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  94. ↑ "WHAT TO THINK ABOUT UNCLE TOM OR TIO TACO". Greensboro News and Record. Greensboro, N.C. January 12, 2005. Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  95. ↑ Patell, Cyrus R. K. (2014). Emergent U.S. literatures: from multiculturalism to cosmopolitanism in the late-twentieth-century. New York. p. 131. ISBN   978-1-4798-7950-2. OCLC   893439499.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  96. ↑ "PFC Arthur Castillo Tijerina, Hereford, TX". The Virtual Wall Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall (www.virtualwall.org). Archived from the original on 2023-04-26. Retrieved 2023-04-26.
  97. ↑ Heberle, Mark (January 14, 2009). Thirty Years After: New Essays on Vietnam War Literature, Film and Art. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 149. ISBN   978-1-4438-0367-0 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  98. ↑ Mariscal, George (March 1999). Aztlán and Viet Nam: Chicano and Chicana Experiences of the War. University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-21405-7 . Retrieved 2023-05-01.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.