Cladophialophora carrionii

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Cladophialophora carrionii
Cladophialophora carrionii.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Chaetothyriales
Family: Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus: Cladophialophora
Species:
C. carrionii
Binomial name
Cladophialophora carrionii
(Trejos) de Hoog, Kwon-Chung & McGinnis (1995)
Synonyms
  • Cladosporium carrionii Trejos (1954)
  • Cladophialophora ajelloi Borelli (1980)

Cladophialophora carrionii is a melanized fungus in the genus Cladophialophora that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of Cladophialophora implicated in human disease. [1] Cladophialophora carrionii is a causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, a subcutaneous infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. [2] Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by C. carrionii, mainly infecting rural workers. [2] When C. carrionii infects its host, it transforms from a mycelial state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body. [3]

Habitat and ecology

Infections by C. carrionii typically arise following traumatic inoculation of material colonized by the fungus. [2] Most infections are reported from dry rural agricultural areas regions. [2] Cladophialophora carrionii is saprotrophic, occurring mainly on decaying plant material such as wood where it produces enzymes that allow it to utilize lignin as a nutrient source. [2] [4] Cladophialophora carrionii is also found in pine trees, eucalyptus fence posts [1] (which are often used in farming to protect crops), soil and dead cactus spines where it derives its nutrition from carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins in the plant tissue. [4] [5]

Morphology

Cladophialophora carrionii is part of a group of melanized fungi, also known as "black yeasts" because its mycelial form has a dark green colour and its conidia have brown pigment. [2] [6] Colonies grow at a modest rate on Sabouraud dextrose agar. [1] The conidia of C. carrionii are unicellular oval-shaped spores that are distinguishable due to the presence of two lightly pigmented scars. [6] [7] Conidia vary in length (1.5-3.0 × 2.0-7.5 μm). [1] Its long conidiophores are similar to the genus Cladosporium , which comes from the Latin word "clado", meaning branched. [1] The genus Cladophialophora is distinguished from Cladosporium because in addition to chains of conidia, members of the genus Cladophialophora also produce phialides. [8] Cladophialophora carrionii is a dimorphic pathogen that changes states from a mycelial form to a muriform, yeast-like state once it invades its host. [3] Muriform cells are golden-brown in colour due to melanin deposition and have thick cell walls. [2] [3]

Growth and reproduction

Like many other black yeasts, C. carrionii is sensitive to temperatures above 37 °C. [6] It can be distinguished in culture by the presence of its urease enzyme hydrolyzing urea [9] and its inability to liquefy gelatin. [7] [10] Altering temperatures or micronutrient levels such as calcium and phosphate affects whether C. carrionii is in the mycelial or muriform state. [2] The fungus transforms to muriform cells under conditions of temperature between 25 °C to 37 °C, 0.1 mM Ca2+, and a pH of 2.5. [8] It produces multiple conidia in long, straight chains that bud off the hyphae, with the youngest conidia farthest from the hyphae. [2] There is no sexual state known for C. carrionii. [6]

Disease in humans

Cladophialophora carrionii can cause a disease called chromoblastomycosis in individuals with a normal functioning immune system, unlike many other pathogenic fungi that can only cause disease in immunocompromised individuals. [2] [11] It is one of the most common agents of chromoblastomycosis. [2] The fungus changes states once it invades the animal host from the mycelial state to muriform cells that spread outward radially. [12] This dimorphism has been suggested to increase the tolerance of C. carrionii to extreme conditions, such as the high temperature and acidity in the human body. [3] Muriform cells increase cell number by septum formation within the hyphae, rather than by budding. [2]

Chromoblastomycosis results in subcutaneous, crusty lesions that can spread over large areas on different parts of the body such as the legs, arms and face. [6] If not treated, the lesions continue to increase in size over the body, but do not usually pose a risk of mortality. [6] As the lesions grow, they can take on multiple forms that resemble nodes, tumours (resemble cauliflowers), and plaques. [13] Infection causes inflammation of the leg or foot tissue, resulting in granulomas. [2]

Epidemiology

Chromoblastomycosis is found worldwide, most prominently in tropical and sub-tropical regions such as Mexico, Madagascar, Brazil, China, and Malaysia but some cases have been reported in the United States and Europe. [2] Cladophialophora carrionii causes only a minor subset of chromoblastomycosis cases, most notably in drier locations such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela, which are rife with plants inhabited by the fungus. [2] Many cases of chromoblastomycosis cases target males over the age of thirty [2] because they are predominant in the agricultural industry in rural areas, where deforestation must be carried out to provide agricultural land and they directly work with the plants that are commonly colonized by C. carrionii. [14]

Pathogenesis and treatment

Chromoblastomycosis infection occurs by subcutaneous puncture by a thorn or splinter that is infected with C. carrionii, such as decaying cacti and wood. [2] Scratching at the lesions worsens the infection by spreading the fungus over larger and distal areas of the body. [11] Field workers who work without foot protection or clothing covering legs and arms are at greater risk for inoculation by material colonized by C. carrionii. [13] Immunocompromised individuals are also at risk, because the ability to produce antibodies against fungal proteins is critical in minimizing fungal pathogenicity [2] and C. carrionii may penetrate deeper into muscle and bone layers if the patient is immunosuppressed. [15] Even if an individual is immunocompetent, they may be at risk if they carry the HLA-A29 antigen, since its presence may increase an individual's susceptibility to contracting chromoblastomycosis. [16] Histology tests from a skin biopsy can identify muriform cells that are commonly found in chromoblastomycosis. [6] Identifying the specific agent that caused chromoblastomycosis can be done by PCR assays [15] or culturing the fungus by growing it on an agar plate and observing the colony morphology and sporulation characteristics. [16] However, C. carrionii grows quite slowly in culture, so significant results cannot be obtained until after 4–6 weeks of incubation. [14]

During infection, the immune system of the host attempts to eliminate the fungus via engulfment and degradation by macrophages and neutrophils, which function in the innate immune system. [3] The adaptive immune system also plays a role by activating cells such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), the type of IL specifically produced with C. carrionii infection, but it may have negative consequences for eradicating the fungus. [3] It is postulated that the presence of melanin in black yeasts like C. carrionii contributes to pathogenicity because it strengthens the fungal cell wall and can neutralize the enzymes produced in macrophages that normally function to break down targeted cells. [17]

Minor cases of chromoblastomycosis can be resolved by surgery or antifungal medications. [18] Cold therapy (cryosurgery) by applying cool liquid nitrogen onto lesions can be effective if combined with antifungal therapy and chemotherapy. [11] More serious cases must be treated for a prolonged period of time (6 to 12 months) with the antifungals itraconazole and terbinafine. [2] Antifungals have a wide range of effectiveness, curing between 15-80% of cases. [12] However, C. carrionii is sensitive to commonly used antifungals so cure rates are higher than seen in chromoblastomycosis infections caused by Fonsecaea pedrosoi . [14] Treatments less effective if the infection is chronic, resulting in high relapse rates. [13]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromoblastomycosis</span> Medical condition

Chromoblastomycosis is a long-term fungal infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue.

Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.

<i>Fonsecaea pedrosoi</i> Species of fungus

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is a fungal species in the family Herpotrichiellaceae, and the major causative agent of chromoblastomycosis. This species is commonly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially in South America, where it grows as a soil saprotroph. Farming activities in the endemic zone are a risk factor for the development of chromoblastomycosis.

<i>Exophiala dermatitidis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala dermatitidis is a thermophilic black yeast, and a member of the Herpotrichiellaceae. While the species is only found at low abundance in nature, metabolically active strains are commonly isolated in saunas, steam baths, and dish washers. Exophiala dermatitidis only rarely causes infection in humans, however cases have been reported around the world. In East Asia, the species has caused lethal brain infections in young and otherwise healthy individuals. The fungus has been known to cause cutaneous and subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis, and as a lung colonist in people with cystic fibrosis in Europe. In 2002, an outbreak of systemic E. dermatitidis infection occurred in women who had received contaminated steroid injections at North Carolina hospitals.

<i>Cladophialophora bantiana</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora bantiana is a melanin producing mold known to cause brain abscesses in humans. It is one of the most common causes of systemic phaeohyphomycosis in mammals. Cladophialophora bantiana is a member of the ascomycota and has been isolated from soil samples from around the world.

Phaeohyphomycosis is a diverse group of fungal infections, caused by dematiaceous fungi whose morphologic characteristics in tissue include hyphae, yeast-like cells, or a combination of these. It can be associated with an array of melanistic filamentous fungi including Alternaria species, Exophiala jeanselmei, and Rhinocladiella mackenziei.

Histoplasma duboisii is a saprotrophic fungus responsible for the invasive infection known as African histoplasmosis. This species is a close relative of Histoplasma capsulatum, the agent of classical histoplasmosis, and the two occur in similar habitats. Histoplasma duboisii is restricted to continental Africa and Madagascar, although scattered reports have arisen from other places usually in individuals with an African travel history. Like, H. capsulatum, H. duboisii is dimorphic – growing as a filamentous fungus at ambient temperature and a yeast at body temperature. It differs morphologically from H. capsulatum by the typical production of a large-celled yeast form. Both agents cause similar forms of disease, although H. duboisii predominantly causes cutaneous and subcutaneous disease in humans and non-human primates. The agent responds to many antifungal drug therapies used to treat serious fungal diseases.

<i>Epicoccum nigrum</i> Species of fungus

Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.

<i>Exophiala phaeomuriformis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala phaeomuriformis is thermophilic fungus belonging to the genus Exophiala and the family Herpotrichiellaceae. it is a member of the group of fungi known as black yeasts, and is typically found in hot and humid locations, such as saunas, bathrooms, and dishwashers. This species can cause skin infections and is typically classified as a Biosafety Risk Group 2 agent.

<i>Cladosporium cladosporioides</i> Species of fungus

Cladosporium cladosporioides is a darkly pigmented mold that occurs world-wide on a wide range of materials both outdoors and indoors. It is one of the most common fungi in outdoor air where its spores are important in seasonal allergic disease. While this species rarely causes invasive disease in animals, it is an important agent of plant disease, attacking both the leaves and fruits of many plants. This species produces asexual spores in delicate, branched chains that break apart readily and drift in the air. It is able to grow under low water conditions and at very low temperatures.

<i>Fonsecaea compacta</i> Species of fungus

Fonsecaea compacta is a saprophytic fungal species found in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. It is a rare etiological agent of chromoblastomycosis, with low rates of correspondence observed from reports. The main active components of F. compacta are glycolipids, yet very little is known about its composition. F. compacta is widely regarded as a dysplastic variety of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, its morphological precursor. The genus Fonsecaea presently contains two species, F. pedrosoi and F. compacta. Over 100 strains of F. pedrosoi have been isolated but only two of F. compacta.

<i>Rhinocladiella mackenziei</i> Species of fungus

Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

<i>Cladosporium sphaerospermum</i> Species of fungus

Cladosporium sphaerospermum is a radiotrophic fungus belonging to the genus Cladosporium and was described in 1886 by Albert Julius Otto Penzig from the decaying leaves and branches of Citrus. It is a dematiaceous (darkly-pigmented) fungus characterized by slow growth and largely asexual reproduction. Cladosporium sphaerospermum consists of a complex of poorly morphologically differentiated, "cryptic" species that share many physiological and ecological attributes. In older literature, all of these sibling species were classified as C. sphaerospermum despite their unique nature. Accordingly, there is confusion in older literature reports on the physiological and habitat regularities of C. sphaerospermum in the strict sense. This fungus is most phylogenetically similar to C. fusiforme. According to modern phylogenetic analyses, the previously synonymized species, Cladosporium langeroni, is a distinct species.

<i>Phialophora verrucosa</i> Species of fungus

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.

Cladosporium oxysporum is an airborne fungus that is commonly found outdoors and is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical region, it is mostly located In Asia and Africa. It spreads through airborne spores and is often extremely abundant in outdoor air during the spring and summer seasons. It mainly feeds on decomposing organic matter in warmer climates, but can also be parasitic and feed on living plants. The airborne spores can occasionally cause cutaneous infections in humans, and the high prevalence of C. oxysporum in outdoor air during warm seasons contributes to its importance as an etiological agent of allergic disease and possibly human cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in tropical regions.

Curvularia pallescens is a soil fungus, that commonly grows on crops found in tropical regions. The conidia of the fungus are distinguishable from those of related species due to their lack of curvature. C. pallescens has been reported to cause infection in plants, and in immunocompetent individuals. This species is the anamorph of Cochliobolus pallescens.

Exophiala pisciphila is a mesophilic black yeast and member of the dark septate endophytes. This saprotrophic fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is abundant in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. E. pisciphila forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in humans. Secondary metabolites produced by this species have potential clinical antibiotic and antiretroviral applications.

Sarocladium kiliense is a saprobic fungus that is occasionally encountered as a opportunistic pathogen of humans, particularly immunocompromised and individuals. The fungus is frequently found in soil and has been linked with skin and systemic infections. This species is also known to cause disease in the green alga, Cladophora glomerata as well as various fruit and vegetable crops grown in warmer climates.

Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.

<i>Cladophialophora</i> Genus of fungi

Cladophialophora is a genus of fungi in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. It has 35 species. The genus contains black yeast-like fungi, some of which are species of important medical significance. Cladophialophora bantiana causes the rare brain disease cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Cladophialophora carrionii is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis in semi-arid climates. Some of the species are endophytes–associating with plants. For example, Cladophialophora yegresii is a cactus endophyte, which is sometimes introduced into humans via cactus spines.

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