Fonsecaea pedrosoi

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Fonsecaea pedrosoi
Fonsecaea pedrosoi.jpg
Conidiophores of Fonsecaea pedrosoi from slide culture on Modified Leonian's agar
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Eurotiomycetes
Order: Chaetothyriales
Family: Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus: Fonsecaea
Species:
F. pedrosoi
Binomial name
Fonsecaea pedrosoi
(Brumpt) Negroni (1936)
Synonyms
  • Hormodendrum pedrosoiBrumpt (1922)
  • Phialophora pedrosoi(Brumpt) Redaelli & Cif. (1941)
  • Fonsecaea compactum(Carrion) Carrion (1940)
  • Rhinocladiella pedrosoi(Brumpt) Schol-Schwarz (1968)

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is a fungal species in the family Herpotrichiellaceae, and the major causative agent of chromoblastomycosis. [1] This species is commonly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions, especially in South America, where it grows as a soil saprotroph. [2] Farming activities in the endemic zone are a risk factor for the development of chromoblastomycosis. [2] [3]

Contents

Taxonomy

Fonsecaea is a genus of ascomycetous fungi affiliated with the family Herpotrichiellaceae. [4] The genus comprises three sibling species, all with pathogenic potential: F. pedrosoi, F. monophora and F. nubica . [4] The species was first formally described in 1922 as Hormodendrum pedrosoi by French parasitologist Émile Brumpt. [5] Pablo Negroni transferred it to the genus Fonsecaea in 1936.

Sparingly branched, brownish conidiophores produce clusters of one-celled, club-shaped conidia in short, dry, unbranched chains. A Phialophora -like asexual state sometimes appears along with yeast cells at low pH. [6]

Ecology and distribution

Fonsecaea pedrosoi occurs in soil and on plants and trees where it grows as a saprotroph. [4] [3] [7] It is found predominantly in tropical regions especially South- and Central America. [4] [8] All three recognized species of Fonsecaea exhibit geographically patterned genetic variation. The closely related species F. monophora and F. nubica are distributed worldwide and show the greater population-level genetic diversity than the geographically restricted F. pedrosoi. [4] Environmental surveys have documented the recovery of F. pedrosoi on rotting wood of the Cambara tree ( Gochnatia polymorpha ) from the Brazilian Corporation of Agricultural Research forest in Colombo, Paraná, Brazil. [9] It has also been isolated from living trees, stumps, woodpiles and fence posts in central Nigeria. [10]

Physiology

Clinical isolates of grow consistently at temperatures up to 35 °C (95 °F). [11] In contrast, environmental isolates of F. pedrosoi exhibit growth consistently up to 35 °C, and irregularly up to 37 °C (99 °F) [12] Physiological studies have shown the degradation of urea and tyrosine, and the lack of growth on the proteins gelatin, casein and the purines xanthine and hypoxanthine. [12] Likewise, lipase activity was demonstrated, but phospholipase, collagenase and amylase were not expressed. [12]

Human disease

Fonsecaea pedrosoi is one of several main causative agents of human chromoblastomycosis, a chronic fungal infection localized to skin and subcutaneous tissue. [1] [8] [2] The disease was first described by Alexandrino Pedroso in 1911. [2] The fungus infects the host through the traumatic implantation of sexual spores known as conidia or hyphal fragments. [1] Once introduced in the subcutaneous tissues, the propagules germinate to establish an invasive mycelium associated with sclerotic cells. [1] This proliferation manifests as a well-defined, chronically progressive, crusted ulceration of the skin known as chromoblastomycosis. [3] [2] [13] Clinically it is often misdiagnosed as squamous cell carcinoma. [2]

Histology

The disease is characterized by the appearance of spherical, brownish yellow cells with thick, darkly pigmented walls. [14] The presence of the agent is associated with host cell proliferation and enlargement known as hyperplasia localized to the stratified squamous epithelium and the formation of mycotic granulomas. [2] Sclerotic bodies are present both extracellularly and intracellularly throughout the affected tissue and are a defining feature of chromoblastomycosis. [2] [13] The melanin content of sclerotic bodies may be important in the establishment of host immune responses. [1]

Risk factors for infection

Farmers in Central and South America are most susceptible to chromoblastomycosis due to F. pedrosoi. [13] [3] Infection often occurs in the upper body and legs of agricultural laborers since these areas are more prone to exposure to infected soil, plant debris or other fomites. [3] The sex ratio of disease is globally variable. In Brazil, the agent has shown a 4:1 proclivity for men, likely as a function of exposure differences relating to work and lifestyle, [13] while Japanese infections have shown evenly distributed infection rates between the sexes. [13]

Treatment

Infections by F. pedrosoi are more difficult to treat than those of F. monophora. [8] In severe cases, treatment is quite complex and involves a combination of antifungal drug therapy and surgical excision. [3] Antifungal agents like itraconazole and terbinafine are commonly used. Surgery is often used to treat small, localized infections, [2] although cryotherapy has been suggested an alternative approach. [3] Topical application of amphotericin B followed by long-term administration of oral antifungal therapy has been shown to be effective in the treatment of corneal chromoblastomycosis from F. pedrosoi. [7] The diagnosis and treatment of chromoblastomycosis by F. pedrosoi remains clinically challenging due to the relative rarity of the disease, its slow, chronic nature, the absence of clinical features readily differentiating it from other more common diseases such as squamous cell carcinoma, the restricted nature of therapies, and the lack of literature. [13] [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungal infection</span> Disease caused by fungi to animals or humans

Fungal infection, also known as mycosis, is a disease caused by fungi. Different types are traditionally divided according to the part of the body affected; superficial, subcutaneous, and systemic. Superficial fungal infections include common tinea of the skin, such as tinea of the body, groin, hands, feet and beard, and yeast infections such as pityriasis versicolor. Subcutaneous types include eumycetoma and chromoblastomycosis, which generally affect tissues in and beneath the skin. Systemic fungal infections are more serious and include cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, pneumocystis pneumonia, aspergillosis and mucormycosis. Signs and symptoms range widely. There is usually a rash with superficial infection. Fungal infection within the skin or under the skin may present with a lump and skin changes. Pneumonia-like symptoms or meningitis may occur with a deeper or systemic infection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chromoblastomycosis</span> Medical condition

Chromoblastomycosis is a long-term fungal infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue.

<i>Trichophyton rubrum</i> Species of fungus

Trichophyton rubrum is a dermatophytic fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. It is an exclusively clonal, anthropophilic saprotroph that colonizes the upper layers of dead skin, and is the most common cause of athlete's foot, fungal infection of nail, jock itch, and ringworm worldwide. Trichophyton rubrum was first described by Malmsten in 1845 and is currently considered to be a complex of species that comprises multiple, geographically patterned morphotypes, several of which have been formally described as distinct taxa, including T. raubitschekii, T. gourvilii, T. megninii and T. soudanense.

<i>Cochliobolus lunatus</i> Fungal plant pathogen

Cochliobolus lunatus is a fungal plant pathogen that can cause disease in humans and other animals. The anamorph of this fungus is known as Curvularia lunata, while C. lunatus denotes the teleomorph or sexual stage. They are, however, the same biological entity. C. lunatus is the most commonly reported species in clinical cases of reported Cochliobolus infection.

<i>Setosphaeria rostrata</i> Pathogenic fungus

Setosphaeria rostrata is a heat tolerant fungus with an asexual reproductive form (anamorph) known as Exserohilum rostratum. This fungus is a common plant pathogen, causing leaf spots as well as crown rot and root rot in grasses. It is also found in soils and on textiles in subtropical and tropical regions. Exserohilum rostratum is one of the 35 Exserohilum species implicated uncommonly as opportunistic pathogens of humans where it is an etiologic agent of sinusitis, keratitis, skin lesions and an often fatal meningoencephalitis. Infections caused by this species are most often seen in regions with hot climates like Israel, India and the southern USA.

Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.

Pathogenic fungi are fungi that cause disease in humans or other organisms. Although fungi are eukaryotic, many pathogenic fungi are microorganisms. Approximately 300 fungi are known to be pathogenic to humans; their study is called "medical mycology". Fungal infections are estimated to kill more people than either tuberculosis or malaria—about two million people per year.

<i>Lomentospora prolificans</i> Species of fungus

Lomentospora prolificans is an emerging opportunistic fungal pathogen that causes a wide variety of infections in immunologically normal and immunosuppressed people and animals. It is resistant to most antifungal drugs and infections are often fatal. Drugs targeting the Class II dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) proteins of L. prolificans, Scedosporium, Aspergillus and other deadly moulds are the basis for at least one new therapy, Olorofim, which is currently in phase 2b clinical trials and has received breakthrough status by FDA. For information on all DHODH proteins, please see Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase.

<i>Fonsecaea</i> Genus of fungi

Fonsecaea is a genus of fungi in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. The type species, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, is associated with the disease chromoblastomycosis.

<i>Exophiala dermatitidis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala dermatitidis is a thermophilic black yeast, and a member of the Herpotrichiellaceae. While the species is only found at low abundance in nature, metabolically active strains are commonly isolated in saunas, steam baths, and dish washers. Exophiala dermatitidis only rarely causes infection in humans, however cases have been reported around the world. In East Asia, the species has caused lethal brain infections in young and otherwise healthy individuals. The fungus has been known to cause cutaneous and subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis, and as a lung colonist in people with cystic fibrosis in Europe. In 2002, an outbreak of systemic E. dermatitidis infection occurred in women who had received contaminated steroid injections at North Carolina hospitals.

Coniochaeta hoffmannii, also known as Lecythophora hoffmannii, is an ascomycete fungus that grows commonly in soil. It has also been categorized as a soft-rot fungus capable of bringing the surface layer of timber into a state of decay, even when safeguarded with preservatives. Additionally, it has pathogenic properties, although it causes serious infection only in rare cases. A plant pathogen lacking a known sexual state, C. hoffmannii has been classified as a "dematiaceous fungus" despite its contradictory lack of pigmentation; both in vivo and in vitro, there is no correlation between its appearance and its classification.

Histoplasma duboisii is a saprotrophic fungus responsible for the invasive infection known as African histoplasmosis. This species is a close relative of Histoplasma capsulatum, the agent of classical histoplasmosis, and the two occur in similar habitats. Histoplasma duboisii is restricted to continental Africa and Madagascar, although scattered reports have arisen from other places usually in individuals with an African travel history. Like, H. capsulatum, H. duboisii is dimorphic – growing as a filamentous fungus at ambient temperature and a yeast at body temperature. It differs morphologically from H. capsulatum by the typical production of a large-celled yeast form. Both agents cause similar forms of disease, although H. duboisii predominantly causes cutaneous and subcutaneous disease in humans and non-human primates. The agent responds to many antifungal drug therapies used to treat serious fungal diseases.

<i>Exophiala phaeomuriformis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala phaeomuriformis is thermophilic fungus belonging to the genus Exophiala and the family Herpotrichiellaceae. it is a member of the group of fungi known as black yeasts, and is typically found in hot and humid locations, such as saunas, bathrooms, and dishwashers. This species can cause skin infections and is typically classified as a Biosafety Risk Group 2 agent.

<i>Fonsecaea compacta</i> Species of fungus

Fonsecaea compacta is a saprophytic fungal species found in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. It is a rare etiological agent of chromoblastomycosis, with low rates of correspondence observed from reports. The main active components of F. compacta are glycolipids, yet very little is known about its composition. F. compacta is widely regarded as a dysplastic variety of Fonsecaea pedrosoi, its morphological precursor. The genus Fonsecaea presently contains two species, F. pedrosoi and F. compacta. Over 100 strains of F. pedrosoi have been isolated but only two of F. compacta.

<i>Rhinocladiella mackenziei</i> Species of fungus

Rhinocladiella mackenziei is a deeply pigmented mold that is a common cause of human cerebral phaeohyphomycosis. Rhinocladiella mackenziei was believed to be endemic solely to the Middle East, due to the first cases of infection being limited to the region. However, cases of R. mackenziei infection are increasingly reported from regions outside the Middle East. This pathogen is unique in that the majority of cases have been reported from immunologically normal people.

<i>Cladophialophora carrionii</i> Species of fungus

Cladophialophora carrionii is a melanized fungus in the genus Cladophialophora that is associated with decaying plant material like cacti and wood. It is one of the most frequent species of Cladophialophora implicated in human disease. Cladophialophora carrionii is a causative agent of chromoblastomycosis, a subcutaneous infection that occurs in sub-tropical areas such as Madagascar, Australia and northwestern Venezuela. Transmission occurs through traumatic implantation of plant material colonized by C. carrionii, mainly infecting rural workers. When C. carrionii infects its host, it transforms from a mycelial state to a muriform state to better tolerate the extreme conditions in the host's body.

<i>Phialophora verrucosa</i> Species of fungus

Phialophora verrucosa is a pathogenic, dematiaceous fungus that is a common cause of chromoblastomycosis. It has also been reported to cause subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis and mycetoma in very rare cases. In the natural environment, it can be found in rotting wood, soil, wasp nests, and plant debris. P. verrucosa is sometimes referred to as Phialophora americana, a closely related environmental species which, along with P. verrucosa, is also categorized in the P. carrionii clade.

Cladosporium oxysporum is an airborne fungus that is commonly found outdoors and is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical region, it is mostly located In Asia and Africa. It spreads through airborne spores and is often extremely abundant in outdoor air during the spring and summer seasons. It mainly feeds on decomposing organic matter in warmer climates, but can also be parasitic and feed on living plants. The airborne spores can occasionally cause cutaneous infections in humans, and the high prevalence of C. oxysporum in outdoor air during warm seasons contributes to its importance as an etiological agent of allergic disease and possibly human cutaneous phaeohyphomycosis in tropical regions.

Arthrographis kalrae is an ascomycetous fungus responsible for human nail infections described in 1938 by Cochet as A. langeronii. A. kalrae is considered a weak pathogen of animals including human restricted to the outermost keratinized layers of tissue. Infections caused by this species are normally responsive to commonly used antifungal drugs with only very rare exceptions.

Cladophialophora arxii is a black yeast shaped dematiaceous fungus that is able to cause serious phaeohyphomycotic infections. C. arxii was first discovered in 1995 in Germany from a 22-year-old female patient suffering multiple granulomatous tracheal tumours. It is a clinical strain that is typically found in humans and is also capable of acting as an opportunistic fungus of other vertebrates Human cases caused by C. arxii have been reported from all parts of the world such as Germany and Australia.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Alviano, D; Franzen, A; Travassos, L; Holandino, C; Rozental, S; Ejzemberg, R; Rodrigues, M (2004). "Melanin from Fonsecaea pedrosoi induces production of human antifungal antibodies and enhances the antimicrobial efficacy of phagocytes". Infection and Immunity. 72 (1): 229–237. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.1.229-237.2004. PMC   344007 . PMID   14688100.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Deb Roy, A; Das, D; Deka, M (2013). "Chromoblastomycosis – A clinical mimic of squamous carcinoma". Australasian Medical Journal. 6 (9): 458–460. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2013.1806. PMC   3794416 . PMID   24133538.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nimrichter, L; Cerqueira, M; Leitao, E; Miranda, K; Nakayasu, E; Almeida, S; Rodrigues, M (2005). "Structure, cellular distribution, antigenicity, and biological functions of Fonsecaea pedrosoi ceramide monohexosides". Infection and Immunity. 73 (12): 7860–7868. doi:10.1128/IAI.73.12.7860-7868.2005. PMC   1307093 . PMID   16299276.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Najafzadeh, M; Sun, J; Vincete, V; Klaassen, C; Bonifaz, A; Gerrits van den Ende, A; Sybren de Hoog, G (2011). "Molecular epidemiology of Fonsecaea species". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 17 (3): 464–69. doi:10.3201/eid1703.100555. PMC   3165995 . PMID   21392438.
  5. ↑ Brumpt, E. (1922). "Précis de parasitologie" (in French): 1105.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ↑ Hoog, GS de; Guarro, J; Gene, J; Figueras, MJ (2000). Atlas of clinical fungi. Baarn, the Netherlands: Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures.
  7. 1 2 Sangwan, Jyoti; Jachuck, SJ (2013). "Fonsecaea Pedrosoi: A rare etiology in fungal keratitis". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 7 (10): 2272–2273. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/6627.3491. PMC   3843447 . PMID   24298496.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Yang, Y; Yongxuan, H; Zhang, J; Li, X; Lu, C; Xi, L; Xi, Liyan (2012). "A refractory case of chromoblastomycosis due to Fonsecaea monophora with improvement by photodynamic therapy". Medical Mycology. 50 (1): 649–653. doi: 10.3109/13693786.2012.655258 . PMID   22309458.
  9. ↑ Vicente, Vânia Aparecida; Angelis, Derlene Attili de; Queiróz-Telles Filho, Flávio; Pizzirani-Kleiner, Aline Aparecida (2001). "Isolation of herpotrichiellacious fungi from the environment". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 32 (1): 47–51. doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822001000100011 .
  10. ↑ Okeke, CN; Gugnani, HC (1986). "Studies on pathogenic dematiaceous fungi. 1. Isolation from natural sources". Mycopathologia. 94 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1007/bf00437257. PMID   3724831. S2CID   32343915.
  11. ↑ Rippon, John Willard (1988). Medical Mycology: The Pathogenic Fungi and the Pathogenic Actinomycetes (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. ISBN   0721624448.
  12. 1 2 3 Gugnani, H.C.; Okeke, C.N. (2009). "Physiological characteristics of environmental isolates of pathogenic dematiaceous fungi". Mycoses. 32 (2): 78–83. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.1989.tb02206.x. PMID   2710157. S2CID   29175415.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kondo, M; Hiruma, M; Nishioka, Y; Mochida, K; Ikeda, S; Ogawa, H (2005). "A case of chromomycosis caused by Fonsecaea pedrosoi and a review of reported cases of dematiaceous fungal infection in Japan". Mycoses. 48 (1): 221–225. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.2005.01089.x. PMID   15842342. S2CID   22268875.
  14. ↑ Alviano, C; Farbiarz, S; Travassos, L; Angluster, J; De Souza, W (1992). "Effect of environmental factors on Fonsecaea pedrosoi morphogenesis with emphasis on sclerotic cells induced by propranolol". Mycopathologia. 119 (1): 17–23. doi:10.1007/BF00492225. PMID   1406903. S2CID   26320347.
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