Malassezia

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Malassezia
Malassezia furfur in skin scale from a patient with tinea versicolor PHIL 3938 lores.jpg
Malassezia furfur in skin scale from a patient with tinea versicolor
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Subdivision: Ustilaginomycotina
Class: Malasseziomycetes
Denchev & T.Denchev (2014)
Order: Malasseziales
R.T.Moore (1980)
Family: Malasseziaceae
Denchev & R.T.Moore (2009)
Genus: Malassezia
Baill. (1889) [1]
Type species
Malassezia furfur
(C.P.Robin) Baill. (1889)
Synonyms [2]

Malassezia is a genus of fungi (specifically, a yeast).

Contents

Some species of Malassezia are found on the skin of animals, including humans. Because malassezia requires fat to grow, [3] it is most common in areas with many sebaceous glands —on the scalp, [4] face, and upper part of the body.

Role in human diseases

Malassezia infections of human skin can cause or aggravate a variety of conditions, including dandruff, seborrheic dermatitis, and acne. [5]

(It is believed that the 18-century French revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat suffered from a Malassezia restricta infection, which lead to his frequent bathing in a medicinal substance. [6] )

Dermatitis and dandruff

When Malassezia grows too rapidly, the natural renewal of cells is disturbed, and dandruff can appear with itching (a similar process may also occur with other fungi or bacteria).

Identification of Malassezia on skin has been aided by the application of molecular or DNA-based techniques. These investigations show that the M. globosa is the species that causes most skin disease in humans, and that it is the most common cause of dandruff and seborrhoeic dermatitis (though M. restricta is also involved). [7]

There can be as many as ten million M. globosa organisms on a human head. [4]

A project in 2007 sequenced the genome of dandruff-causing Malassezia globosa and found it to have 4,285 genes. [8] [9] M. globosa uses eight different types of lipase, along with three phospholipases, to break down the oils on the scalp. Any of these 11 proteins would be a suitable target for dandruff medications.

Prescription and over-the-counter shampoos containing ketoconazole are commonly used to treat dandruff caused by Malassezia.

M. globosa has been predicted to have the ability to reproduce sexually, [10] but this has not been observed.

Skin pigmentation disorders

In occasional opportunistic infections of the trunk and other locations on humans, some species of Malassezia can cause hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation. Allergy tests for these fungi are available.

The skin rash of tinea versicolor (pityriasis versicolor) is also caused infection by this fungus.

Cancer

Translocation of Malassezia species from the intestines into pancreatic neoplasms has been associated with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, and the fungi may promote tumor progression through activation of host complement. [11] [12]

Crohn's and inflammatory bowel disease

M. restricta, which is normally found in the skin, is linked to disorders like Crohn's disease and inflammatory bowel disease when found in the gut. This is especially true for organism with the N12 CARD9 allele, which provokes a stronger inflammatory response. [13]

Malassezia folliculitis

A 25-year-old man with pityrosporum folliculitis and electron micrograph of his skin, showing Malassezia spores. Pityrosporum folliculitis 2.jpg
A 25-year-old man with pityrosporum folliculitis and electron micrograph of his skin, showing Malassezia spores.

Malassezia folliculitis (also called pityrosporum folliculitis), [15] is caused by infection with Malassezia. [16]

Systematics

Malassezia is the sole genus in family Malasseziaceae, which is the only family in order Malasseziales, itself the single member of class Malasseziomycetes. [17]

Due to progressive changes in their nomenclature, some confusion exists about the naming and classification of Malassezia yeast species. Work on these yeasts has been complicated because they require specific growth media and sometimes grow very slowly in laboratory culture. [18]

Malassezia was originally identified by the French scientist Louis-Charles Malassez in the late nineteenth century; [19] he associated it with the condition seborrhoeic dermatitis. [20] Raymond Sabouraud identified a dandruff-causing organism in 1904 and called it Pityrosporum Malassezii, [21] honoring Malassez, but at the species level as opposed to the genus level. When it was determined that the organisms were the same, the term "Malassezia" was judged to possess priority. [22]

In the mid-twentieth century, it was reclassified into two species:

Malassezia is the sole genus in the family Malasseziaceae, which was validated by Cvetomir Denchev and Royall T. Moore in 2009. [24] The order Malasseziales had been previously proposed by Moore in 1980, [25] and later emended by Begerow and colleagues in 2000. At this time the order was classified as a member of unknown class placement in the subdivision Ustilaginomycotina. [26] In 2014, Cvetomir and Teodor Denchev circumscribed the class Malasseziomycetes to contain the group. [27]

Description

Malassezia grows rapidly, typically maturing within 5 days when incubated at temperatures ranging from 30–35 °C (86–95 °F). Growth is slower at 25 °C (77 °F), and certain species struggle at 37 °C (99 °F). These organisms can proliferate on media infused with cycloheximide. An essential factor for the growth of Malassezia is the presence of long-chain fatty acids, with M. pachydermatis being an exception. The most conventional cultivation method involves overlaying solid media with a layer of olive oil. However, for nurturing some clinically relevant species, such as the challenging-to-cultivate M. restricta, more intricate culture media may be required. For the most efficient recovery of Malassezia, it has been recommended to collect blood through a lipid infusion catheter and subsequently use lysis-centrifugation—a recommendation backed by multiple comparative studies. [28]

The yeast-like cells of Malassezia, measuring between 1.5–4.5  μm by 3–7 μm, are characterised as phialides featuring tiny collarettes (a small, collar-like flange or lip at the mouth of a phialide from which spores or conidia are produced and released). These collarettes are challenging to identify using standard light microscopes. A defining characteristic of cells from this genus is their morphology: one end is round, while the other has a distinctly blunt termination. This latter end is where singular, broad-based bud-like structures emerge, although in certain species, these structures might be narrower. To effectively visualise the organism's shape, a staining technique involving safranin is recommended, followed by observation under oil immersion. Furthermore, Calcofluor-white staining provides an enhanced clarity of the cell wall and its unique contour. While Malassezia typically lacks hyphal elements, rudimentary forms can sporadically be present. [28]

Species

The Index Fungorum lists 22 species of Malassezia. [29] The following list gives the name, the taxonomic authority (those who first described the fungus, or who transferred it into Malassezia from another genus; standardized author abbreviations are used), and the name of the organism from which the fungus was isolated, if not human.

In the mid-1990s, scientists at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France, discovered additional species. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dandruff</span> Skin condition of the scalp

Dandruff is a skin condition that mainly affects the scalp. Symptoms include flaking and sometimes mild itchiness. It can result in social or self-esteem problems. A more severe form of the condition, which includes inflammation of the skin, is known as seborrhoeic dermatitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tinea versicolor</span> Skin disease

Tinea versicolor is a condition characterized by a skin eruption on the trunk and proximal extremities. The majority of tinea versicolor is caused by the fungus Malassezia globosa, although Malassezia furfur is responsible for a small number of cases. These yeasts are normally found on the human skin and become troublesome only under certain conditions, such as a warm and humid environment, although the exact conditions that cause initiation of the disease process are poorly understood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seborrhoeic dermatitis</span> Skin disease

Seborrhoeic dermatitis is a long-term skin disorder. Symptoms include flaky, scaly, greasy, and occasionally itchy and inflamed skin. Areas of the skin rich in oil-producing glands are often affected including the scalp, face, and chest. It can result in social or self-esteem problems. In babies, when the scalp is primarily involved, it is called cradle cap. Seborrhoeic dermatitis of the scalp may be described in lay terms as dandruff due to the dry, flaky character of the skin. However, as dandruff may refer to any dryness or scaling of the scalp, not all dandruff is seborrhoeic dermatitis. Seborrhoeic dermatitis is sometimes inaccurately referred to as seborrhoea.

<i>Cryptococcus</i> Genus of fungi

Cryptococcus is a genus of fungi in the family Cryptococcaceae that includes both yeasts and filamentous species. The filamentous, sexual forms or teleomorphs were formerly classified in the genus Filobasidiella, while Cryptococcus was reserved for the yeasts. Most yeast species formerly referred to Cryptococcus have now been placed in different genera. The name Cryptococcus comes from the Greek for "hidden sphere". Some Cryptococcus species cause a disease called cryptococcosis.

<i>Malassezia furfur</i> Species of fungus

Malassezia furfur is a species of yeast that is naturally found on the skin surfaces of humans and some other mammals. It is associated with a variety of dermatological conditions caused by fungal infections, notably seborrhoeic dermatitis and tinea versicolor. As an opportunistic pathogen, it has further been associated with dandruff, malassezia folliculitis, pityriasis versicolor (alba), and malassezia intertrigo, as well as catheter-related fungemia and pneumonia in patients receiving hematopoietic transplants.

<i>Trichosporon</i> Genus of fungi


Trichosporon is a genus of anamorphic fungi in the family Trichosporonaceae. All species of Trichosporon are yeasts with no known teleomorphs. Most are typically isolated from soil, but several species occur as a natural part of the skin microbiota of humans and other animals. Proliferation of Trichosporon yeasts in the hair can lead to an unpleasant but non-serious condition known as white piedra. Trichosporon species can also cause severe opportunistic infections (trichosporonosis) in immunocompromised individuals.

<i>Malassezia globosa</i> Species of fungus

Malassezia globosa is a species of yeast-like fungus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malassezia folliculitis</span> Medical condition

Malassezia folliculitis or pityrosporum folliculitis, is a skin condition caused by infection by Malassezia yeast.

Moniliella is a genus of fungi in the subdivision Ustilaginomycotina. It is in the monotypic family MoniliellaceaeQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout, which is in the monotypic order MoniliellalesQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout which is in the monotypic class MoniliellomycetesQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout.

Malassezia japonica is a fungus that can cause opportunistic infections in animals.

Malassezia dermatis is a fungus that can cause opportunistic infections in animals.

Malassezia equina is a fungus first isolated in horses, which can cause opportunistic infections in animals. Its type strain is MA146=CBS 9969. This species will not grow without any lipid supplementation. It grows slowly and forms small colonies. In the lab, colonies will not grow at temperatures of 40 °C, differing from M. sympodialis-related species, such M. dermatis and M. nana, which can grow at this temperature. Malassezia caprae cells are ovoidal.

Malassezia caprae is a fungus first isolated in goats, which can cause opportunistic infections in animals. Its type strain is MA383=CBS 10434. This species will not grow without any lipid supplementation. It grows slowly and forms small colonies. In the lab, colonies will not grow at temperatures of 40 °C, differing from M. sympodialis-related species, such M. dermatis and M. nana, which can grow at this temperature. Malassezia caprae cells are ellipsoidal to more or less spherical.

Malassezia nana is a fungus that can cause opportunistic infections in animals. It was first isolated from animals in Japan and Brazil. M. nana resembles M. dermatis and M. sympodialis, but is distinguished from these species by its inability to use Kolliphor EL (Sigma) as the sole lipid source and to hydrolyse aesculin. The type strain of M. nana is NUSV 1003T(=CBS 9557T=JCM 12085T).

Malassezia pachydermatis is a zoophilic yeast in the division Basidiomycota. It was first isolated in 1925 by Fred Weidman, and it was named pachydermatis after the original sample taken from an Indian rhinoceros with severe exfoliative dermatitis. Within the genus Malassezia, M. pachydermatis is most closely related to the species M. furfur. A commensal fungus, it can be found within the microflora of healthy mammals such as humans, cats and dogs, However, it is capable of acting as an opportunistic pathogen under special circumstances and has been seen to cause skin and ear infections, most often occurring in canines.

Malassezia sympodialis is a species in the genus Malassezia. It is characterized by a pronounced lipophily, unilateral, percurrent or sympodial budding and an irregular, corrugated cell wall ultrastructure. It is one of the most common species found on the skin of healthy and diseased individuals. It is considered to be part of the skin's normal human microbiota and begins to colonize the skin of humans shortly after birth. Malassezia sympodialis, often has a symbiotic or commensal relationship with its host, but it can act as a pathogen causing a number of different skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis.

<i>Trichosporon asteroides</i> Fungus of the genus Trichosporon

Trichosporon asteroides is an asexual basidiomycetous fungus first described from human skin but now mainly isolated from blood and urine. T. asteroides is a hyphal fungus with a characteristically yeast-like appearance due to the presence of slimy arthroconidia. Infections by this species usually respond to treatment with azoles and amphotericin B.

Fungal genomes are among the smallest genomes of eukaryotes. The sizes of fungal genomes range from less than 10 Mbp to hundreds of Mbp. The average genome size is approximately 37 Mbp in Ascomycota, 47 Mbp in Basidiomycota and 75 Mbp in Oomycota. The sizes and gene numbers of the smallest genomes of free-living fungi such as those of Wallemia ichthyophaga, Wallemia mellicola or Malassezia restricta are comparable to bacterial genomes. The genome of the extensively researched yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains approximately 12 Mbp and was the first completely sequenced eukaryotic genome. Due to their compact size fungal genomes can be sequenced with less resources than most other eukaryotic genomes and are thus important models for research. Some fungi exist as stable haploid, diploid, or polyploid cells, others change ploidy in response to environmental conditions and aneuploidy is also observed in novel environments or during periods of stress.

Malassezia arunalokei is a species of yeast-like fungus that was identified as a new to science in 2016. It has been isolated from the skin of both seborrheic dermatitis patients and healthy individuals from India. A combination of several phenotypic characteristics distinguish this species from others in genus Malassezia. These include: colony morphology ; the absence of activity from the enzyme catalase; growth at 37 °C (99 °F); and the precipitation that results when grown with the chemicals Tween 20 or Cremophor EL.

<i>Moesziomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Moesziomyces is a fungal genus in the family Ustilaginaceae.

References

  1. ↑ Baillon, H. (1889). Traité de botanique médicale cryptogamique, suivi du tableau du droguier de la Faculté de médecine de Paris, par H. Baillon. Avec 370 figures dans le texte, dessins de A. Faguet [Treatise on cryptogamic medical botany, followed by the druggist's table from the Faculty of Medicine of Paris] (in French). p. 234. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5409. OCLC   2139870.
  2. ↑ "Synonymy: Malassezia Baill., Traité Bot. Méd. Crypt.: 234 (1889)". Species Fungorum. Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
  3. 1 2 Guého E, Midgley G, Guillot J (May 1996). "The genus Malassezia with description of four new species". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 69 (4): 337–355. doi:10.1007/BF00399623. PMID   8836432. S2CID   31791799.
  4. 1 2 "Genetic code of dandruff cracked". BBC News. BBC. 2007-11-06. Archived from the original on 2008-12-22. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
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  6. ↑ "Mystery of Jean-Paul Marat's bathing habit… - The Good Life France". thegoodlifefrance.com. 2021-06-14. Archived from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2024-01-19.
  7. 1 2 DeAngelis YM, Saunders CW, Johnstone KR, et al. (September 2007). "Isolation and expression of a Malassezia globosa lipase gene, LIP1". J. Invest. Dermatol. 127 (9): 2138–46. doi: 10.1038/sj.jid.5700844 . PMID   17460728.
  8. ↑ Xu J, Saunders CW, Hu P, et al. (November 2007). "Dandruff-associated Malassezia genomes reveal convergent and divergent virulence traits shared with plant and human fungal pathogens". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (47): 18730–5. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10418730X. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706756104 . PMC   2141845 . PMID   18000048.
  9. ↑ Spectrum Science Public Relations (21 November 2007). "Scientists Complete Genome Sequence Of Fungus Responsible For Dandruff, Skin Disorders". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 28 December 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2023.
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  11. ↑ Aykut B, Pushalkar S, Chen R, Li Q, Abengozar R, Kim JI, et al. (2019). "The fungal mycobiome promotes pancreatic oncogenesis via activation of MBL". Nature. 574 (7777): 264–267. Bibcode:2019Natur.574..264A. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1608-2. PMC   6858566 . PMID   31578522.
  12. ↑ Loker, Eric S.; Hofkin, Bruce V. (2023). Parasitology: A Conceptual Approach (Second ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 54. doi:10.1201/9780429277405. ISBN   9780429277405. LCCN   2021045732. S2CID   250473493.
  13. ↑ Limon, Jose J.; Tang, Jie; Li, Dalin; Wolf, Andrea J.; Michelsen, Kathrin S.; Funari, Vince; Gargus, Matthew; Nguyen, Christopher; Sharma, Purnima; Maymi, Viviana I.; Iliev, Iliyan D.; Skalski, Joseph H.; Brown, Jordan; Landers, Carol; Borneman, James; Braun, Jonathan; Targan, Stephan R.; McGovern, Dermot P.B.; Underhill, David M. (March 2019). "Malassezia Is Associated with Crohn's Disease and Exacerbates Colitis in Mouse Models". Cell Host & Microbe. 25 (3): 377–388.e6. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2019.01.007. PMC   6417942 . PMID   30850233.
  14. ↑ Ran Yuping (2016). "Observation of Fungi, Bacteria, and Parasites in Clinical Skin Samples Using Scanning Electron Microscopy". In Janecek, Milos; Kral, Robert (eds.). Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences. InTech. doi:10.5772/61850. ISBN   978-953-51-2252-4. S2CID   53472683.
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  18. ↑ Theelen, Bart; Cafarchia, Claudia; Gaitanis, Georgios; Bassukas, Ioannis Dimitrios; Boekhout, Teun; Dawson, Thomas L. (2018). "Malassezia ecology, pathophysiology, and treatment". Medical Mycology. 56 (suppl 1): S10–S25. doi: 10.1093/mmy/myx134 . hdl: 11586/215288 . PMID   29538738.
  19. ↑ Malassez, L. (1874). "Note sur le champignon du pityriasis simple" [Note on the fungus of simple pityriasis]. Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry (in French). 2: 451–464.
  20. ↑ Dawson, Thomas L. (2019). "Malassezia: The Forbidden Kingdom Opens". Cell Host Microbe. 25 (3): 345–347. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2019.02.010 . PMID   30870616.
  21. ↑ Sabouraud, R. (1904). Maladies du cuir chevelu: II. Les maladies desquamatives [Scalp conditions: II. Desquamative disorders] (in French). Paris: Masson et Cie. p. 646.
  22. ↑ Inamadar AC, Palit A (2003). "The genus Malassezia and human disease". Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 69 (4): 265–70. PMID   17642908.
  23. ↑ Freedberg; et al., eds. (2003). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 1187. ISBN   0-07-138067-1.
  24. ↑ Denchev, C.M.; Moore, R.T. (2009). "Validation of Malasseziaceae and Ceraceosoraceae (Exobasidiomycetes)". Mycotaxon. 110: 379–382. doi: 10.5248/110.379 .
  25. ↑ Moore, R.T. (1980). "Taxonomic proposals for the classification of marine yeasts and other yeast-like fungi including the smuts". Botanica Marina. 23 (6): 361–373.
  26. ↑ Begerow, Dominik; Bauer, Robert; Boekhout, Teun (2000). "Phylogenetic placements of ustilaginomycetous anamorphs as deduced from nuclear LSU rDNA sequences". Mycological Research. 104 (1): 53–60. doi:10.1017/s0953756299001161.
  27. ↑ Denchev, C.M.; Denchev, T.T. (2014). "Nomenclatural novelties" (PDF). Index Fungorum. 145: 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-02-06. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
  28. 1 2 Larone, Davise Honig (2011). Medically Important Fungi (5th ed.). Washington (D.C.): ASM press. p. 146. ISBN   978-1-55581-660-5.
  29. ↑ Species Fungorum. "Malassezia". Catalog of Life . Archived from the original on 3 November 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
  30. ↑ Honnavar, P.; Prasad, G.S.; Ghosh, A.; Dogra, S.; Handa, S.; Rudramurthy, S.M. (2016). "Malassezia arunalokei sp. nov., a novel yeast species isolated from seborrhoeic dermatitis patients and healthy individuals from India". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 54 (7): 1826–1834. doi:10.1128/JCM.00683-16. PMC   4922115 . PMID   27147721.
  31. ↑ Cabañes, F.J.; Coutinho, S.D.A.; Puig, L.; Bragulat, M.R.; Castellá, G. (2016). "New lipid-dependent Malassezia species from parrots". Revista Iberoamericana de Micología. 33 (2): 92–99. doi:10.1016/j.riam.2016.03.003. PMID   27184440.
  32. 1 2 Cabañes, F. Javier; Theelen, Bart; Castellá, Gemma; Boekhout, Teun (September 2007). "Two new lipid-dependent Malassezia species from domestic animals". FEMS Yeast Research. 7 (6): 1064–1076. doi: 10.1111/j.1567-1364.2007.00217.x . PMID   17367513.
  33. ↑ Cabañes FJ, Vega S, Castellá G (2011). "Malassezia cuniculi sp. nov., a novel yeast species isolated from rabbit skin". Medical Mycology. 49 (1): 40–48. doi: 10.3109/13693786.2010.493562 . PMID   20560865.
  34. ↑ Sugita T, Takashima M, Shinoda T, et al. (April 2002). "New Yeast Species, Malassezia dermatis, Isolated from Patients with Atopic Dermatitis". J. Clin. Microbiol. 40 (4): 1363–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.40.4.1363-1367.2002. PMC   140359 . PMID   11923357.
  35. ↑ White, S.D.; Vandenabeele, S.I.J.; Drazenovich, N.L.; Foley, J.E. (March 2006). "Malassezia Species Isolated from the Intermammary and Preputial Fossa Areas of Horses". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. 20 (2): 395–398. doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02874.x. PMID   16594600.
  36. ↑ Sugita, Takashi; Masako Takashima; Minako Kodama; Ryoji Tsuboi; Akemi Nishikawa (October 2003). "Description of a New Yeast Species, Malassezia japonica, and Its Detection in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis and Healthy Subjects". J. Clin. Microbiol. 41 (10): 4695–4699. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.10.4695-4699.2003. PMC   254348 . PMID   14532205.
  37. ↑ Hirai A, Kano R, Makimura K, et al. (March 2004). "Malassezia nana sp. nov., a novel lipid-dependent yeast species isolated from animals". Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 54 (Pt 2): 623–7. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.02776-0 . PMID   15023986.
  38. ↑ Guého, E.; Midgley, G.; Guillot, J. (1996). "The genus Malassezia with description of four new species". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 69 (4): 337–355. doi:10.1007/BF00399623. PMID   8836432. S2CID   31791799.
  39. ↑ Maecke, Margarita (1941). "Descripción de una nueva especie de Malassezia: Malassezia ochoterenai, agente causal de Pytiriasis (Tinea) vesicolor y posición sistemática del género Malassezia". Anales del Instituto de Biología (in Spanish). 12: 511–546.
  40. ↑ Coutinho SD, Paula CR (June 1998). "Biotyping of Malassezia pachydermatis strains using the killer system". Rev Iberoam Micol. 15 (2): 85–7. PMID   17655416.
  41. ↑ Lorch JM, Palmer JM, Vanderwolf KJ, et al. (2018). "Malassezia vespertilionis sp. nov. :a new cold-tolerant species of yeast isolated from bats". Persoonia. 41: 56–70. doi:10.3767/persoonia.2018.41.04. PMC   6344816 . PMID   30728599. Archived from the original on 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2019-09-18.
  42. ↑ Sugita T, Tajima M, Amaya M, Tsuboi R, Nishikawa A (2004). "Genotype analysis of Malassezia restricta as the major cutaneous flora in patients with atopic dermatitis and healthy subjects". Microbiol. Immunol. 48 (10): 755–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2004.tb03601.x . PMID   15502408.
  43. ↑ Uzal FA, Paulson D, Eigenheer AL, Walker RL (October 2007). "Malassezia slooffiae-associated dermatitis in a goat". Veterinary Dermatology. 18 (5): 348–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2007.00606.x . PMID   17845623.
  44. ↑ Niamba P, Weill FX, Sarlangue J, Labrèze C, Couprie B, Taïeh A (August 1998). "Is common neonatal cephalic pustulosis (neonatal acne) triggered by Malassezia sympodialis?". Arch Dermatol. 134 (8): 995–8. doi: 10.1001/archderm.134.8.995 . PMID   9722730.
  45. ↑ Lorch, J.M.; Palmer, J.M.; Vanderwolf, K.J.; Schmidt, K.Z.; Verant, M.L.; Weller, T.J.; Blehert, D.S. (2018). "Malassezia vespertilionis sp. nov.: a new cold-tolerant species of yeast isolated from bats". Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi. 41 (1): 56–70. doi: 10.3767/persoonia.2018.41.04 . PMC   6344816 . PMID   30728599.
  46. ↑ Sugita T, Tajima M, Takashima M, et al. (2004). "A new yeast, Malassezia yamatoensis, isolated from a patient with seborrheic dermatitis, and its distribution in patients and healthy subjects". Microbiol. Immunol. 48 (8): 579–83. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2004.tb03554.x. PMID   15322337. S2CID   34281815.

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